INDIAN MYTHOLOGY INTRODUCTION Religious Complexity of Hindu Society Indian mythology is an inextricable jungle of luxuriant growths. When you enter it you lose the light of day and all clear sense of direction. In a brief exposition one cannot aviod over-simplification. But at least one can point out how, in the most favourable circumstances, paths may be traced leading to a methodical exploration of this vast domain. At every period the area including the two river basins - Indus and Ganges - and the plateau of the Deccan, contained a mixture of races devoid of unity but including every stage of civilisation, from the very primitive to the highly evolved. The Aryan invaders from the northwest settled at first in the Punjab (upper valley of the Indus and its tributaries) between 3000 and 1500 B.C., and must even then have come into contact with dark-skinned Dravidians of a rather advanced culture which may have been related to that of the Chaldeans (if we may judge from the excavations at Harappa), and with much 'wilder' tribes speaking Munda idioms, whose affinities were with the Negroids of Indo-China and Australia. A great peculiarity of India is that everything endures while everything changes, so that even today these three elements exist side by side, at once distinct and yet intermingled in an infinite number of amalgams, which moreover contain a certain number of Mongolian elements. Thus, at the - theoretical - starting point of Indian mythology one must insist on the different factors, Munda, Dravidian and Aryan. But the first two have left no direct traces in very early times: they only appear through the medium of Brahmanic literature - the literature of the Aryans of India. The protohistoric expression of this literature exists in the Vedas and nowadays they are more and more recognised as possessing an 'Indian' and not merely 'Aryan' character. Moreover, the mixture of Aryan and non-Aryan myths which for a long time out of sheer prejudice was rated as 'late' and called 'Hinduism' dates from the earliest ages of 'Indianity', which includes the period of the Vedas. Non-Aryan Cults The aborigines, who spoke idioms related to the Munda, are to some extent involved with Totemism. The life of some vegetable or animal species was believed to be the life of the tribe and of the individuals who formed it. Sacrifice consisted in immolating a victim in order to absorb its vital principle - a custom sometimes implying cannibalism. The Dravidians were less gross. They excluded blood sacrifices and the eating of raw meat, and were limited to the veneration of idols. The effigy of a divinity was sprinkled, perfumed, and hung with garlands. This pious and peaceful veneration remained in India under the name 'puja'. Still, if grossness did not appear in their rites, it was present in the divine forms which they revered. Even in our days, on the southeast slope of the Deccan, piety is shown to hideous she-ogres such as Kali and Durga, ferocious deities of Hinduism which show a Brahmanised separation. These female monsters symbolize the fecundity of Nature. The male element is also worshipped through the symbol of the phallus or lingum. The importance given to female forms of divinity indicates a social structure characterized by the matriarchy. The Aryan Tradition: the Vedo-Brahmanic Cult From the beginning of its historical origins the Aryan element is marked by its family organisation. In everything is shown the wish to maintain the moral integrity of the Aryan clans in a conquered country. They long retained the aspect of victorious tribes settled among enemies; they were under military rule and consequently had the agnatic type of family. Living near one another in little republics, the germs of towns, or scattered in rural villages, the Aryan clans desired nothing so earnestly as the continuation and defence of their own traditions. The result of this was that the social classes of the Aryans of Iran became the castes of the Aryans of India, with theoretically water-tight divisions. Religion, in theory a family affair, allowed only one priest - the father or the ancestor invested with authority; and it more and more assumed the aspect of a religion of caste. It remained a family affair, but was modified by different rites, according to whether the family belonged to the warrior nobility, the Kshatriyas; or to the priests, the Brahmans; or to the common people, the Vaisyas, who were entrusted with material affairs. This evolution in the direction of Caste shows the change of Indian Aryanism from the 'Vedic' stage to the 'Brahmanic' stage; although the Vedas were at least compiled if not conceived by a priesthood with a fundamentally Brahmanic spirit. This forms the basis of religious notions. The Iranian Asha - the collection of the stable conditions of cosmic and social order - is changed to the Dharma, a social structure as well as an ontological reality, the right and duty of the Castes as well as fidelity to the Aryan ideal. Each sect came to have its dharma, even those, such as the Jains and Buddhists, who rejected the Brahmanic tradition. There are as many varying mythologies as there are diversities contained within the Dharma. THE BRAHMANIC DHARMA Brahmanism is the inheritance of the Vedic tradition as the centre of the beliefs and cults proper to the Aryans of India. We find in it the conceptions proper to the warrior caste, those which especially affect the priestly caste, and popular beliefs. On top of all this came the more abstract mythology which was associated with the Brahmans themselves. MYTHOLOGY OF THE WARRIOR CASTE Long before the Brahmanic caste appeared in India, the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans, scattered over western Asia with no fixed abode, worshipped gods of a type befitting a conquering aristocracy. These gods are enumerated as the guarantors of a treaty whose memory has been preserved for us in the clay tablets of Bogaz-Keui, or Pteria, in Cappadocia. It is a treaty of peace, about 1400 B.C., between Mattinaza, king of the Mitanni, and Subbiluliuma, king of the Hittites. The witnesses cited are named Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and Nasatyas. The first three at least are represented as god-kings. They form-a contrast to the cult-gods who were denned by the Brahmanic caste in the territory of India. Indra The Aryan, who set his yoke on the peoples of dark race, worshipped in Indra the grandiose projection of his own type. This god possesses on a large scale the defects and qualities of a Kshatriya, or at least of a primitive arya - he has their courage but also their intemperance. He cleaves demons asunder, as the Indo-European warriors overcame inferior races. This swashbuckler swills ambrosia, not to live but to get drunk. He is the only one of the Vedic gods who appears human in his characteristics and his morals, and to him are addressed by far the largest number (250) of hymns. He is armed with arrows and rides in a chariot, like a noble. The myth transformed him into a cosmic force, and he wields a thunderbolt - the lightning - while his chariot becomes the sun. His victory over the dragon Vritra, the Enveloper or the Obstructor, ends with the liberation of the waters, like penned-up cows. To this end he splits mountains, and sends the torrents rushing towards the sea. His achievement determines the fecundity of Nature. By breaking the clouds he gives us back the sun and the dawn. As he supplies both light and water he appears not only as the god of war but as the principle of fertility. We can estimate the importance of Indra's exploit only when we realize that in India the soil is exposed for months to a burning sun which makes it so hard that it can neither be dug nor sown. Therefore the god who brings the rain is very often invoked in the most flattering hymns. According to the poets of the Vedic epoch, the clouds brought by the sea winds were enemies, greedy for the treasure hidden within them; they had to be conquered by a superior power before they would shower their wealth of water over the dry land. Indra is the god of warriors, but also the god of Nature - a kind of Hercules with the aspect of Zeus. He reigns in the sky and triumphs in the storm, when he thunders and lets loose the rain. He is depicted with two arms, one of which holds a thunderbolt (vajra) and the other a bow; or with four arms, two of which hold lances similar to elephant goads. His steed, in fact, is the elephant Airavata, born from the sea of milk. Indra, the prototype of the caste of nobles, has no legendary connection with gods of another origin. But an effort was made to link him closely with the god Agni. He was supposed to be Agni's twin brother, and therefore son of Heaven and of Earth. His wife--a mere reflection of himself-- is Indrani, and his son Sitragupta. Indra is Svargapati, the lord of heaven; Meghavahana, rider of the clouds; Vajri, the thunderer. He lives on mount Meru, the supposed centre of the earth, to the north of the Himalayas, and therefore between earth and heaven. The story of his battle with the demon shows us how the great Indra, Mahendra, came to deserve the title of powerful, Sakra; with this reservation, that popular inspiration degraded to the level of cunning an efficacy which from the very essence of the god should have been cosmic energy and the strength of a hero. Indra and the Demon Vritra Once upon a time there was a powerful Brahman by the name of Tvashtri who did not like Indra. To deprive Indra of his throne the Brahman created a son, and strengthened him with his own power. This son had three heads. With the first he read the Vedas; with the second he fed himself; and with the third he seemed to observe every inch of the horizon. He surpassed all men by the ardor of his asceticism and the pious humility of his heart. Indra became uneasy at the spectacle of the daily increase of a power which seemed destined to absorb the universe - and he decided to intervene. The most seductive girls of heaven were sent to tempt the young ascetic, but in vain. Indra then decided that the youthful sage must die, and smote him with his thunderbolt. But even in death the body of the young Brahman radiated such glorious light over the world that Indra's fears were not calmed. He ordered a passing wood-cutter to cut off the dead man's three heads - and at that very instant great flights of doves and other birds burst forth. To avenge his son, Tvashtri brought to life a demon which he named Vritra. This demon was so huge his head reached to the sky. He challenged Indra to fight. A horrible battle followed, and the demon was victorious. He seized the king of gods, cast him into his jaw, and swallowed him. The terrified gods did not know what to do. They had the inspiration to gag the demon, and as soon as he opened his mouth Indra contracted his body, jumped through the gaping jaws, and the battle jtarted up again more furiously than ever. But the god was compelled to fly. In his humiliation he consulted the Rishi, and they all went together to get the advice of the god Vishnu who told them to make peace through the intervention of the Rishi, adding mysteriously that perhaps one day he would incarnate himself in a weapon which would slay the demon Vritra. The Rishi succeeded in persuading Vritra to a reconciliation with his enemy, but with one condition. 'Give me your solemn promise,' he said, 'that Indra will never attack me with any weapon of wood, stone or iron, nor with anything dry, nor with anything wet. Promise too that he will never attack me by day nor by night.' The pact was agreed to. However, Indra secretly meditated revenge. One evening he was on the sea-shore, and saw his enemy at no great distance; and suddenly he thought: The sun is setting on the horizon, darkness is coming on, but it is not yet night and it is not altogether day. If I could kill the demon now, between day and night, I should not have broken my promise.' While he mused he saw a vast column of foam rise from the sea, and Indra realised that it was neither dry nor wet nor stone nor iron nor wood. He seized the foam and hurled it at the demon who fell dead on the shore, for it was Vishnu who as he had promised had entered into this strange weapon, and nobody can resist him. The gods rejoiced and Nature with them; the sky was filled with light and a soft breeze began to blow; even the beasts of the field rejoiced. But Indra felt that he carried the burden of a great sin, for he had slain a Brahman. Gods of Universal Power: Mitra and Varuna Mitra and Varuna, made in India the sons of Aditi or Adityas, form a dyad. They are called kings (Raja), possessors of that power, kshatram, which forms the essence of the Kshatriya caste. They are endowed with universal power (samraj). Yet they scarcely possess human shape, which puts them in contrast to Indra. They have magical powers, maya and asuras, a term which comprehends not only the mysterious powers of certain devas (or gods) but the evil influence of demons. Mitra and Varuna did not institute but maintain universal order, rita: that is their essential function. For this reason the former presides over friendship and ratifies contracts, while the latter looks after oaths. To carry out their functions as guardians and witnesses they must see, or shine, for in primitive minds these two ideas are interchangeable. And so one sees or shines during the day - Mitra or the Sun; the other at night - Varuna or the Moon. Their other characteristics are less significant and more arbitrary. The Indian Mitra coincides with the Iranian Mithra, except that the former, unlike the latter, is not closely associated with a brother. But the Persians frequently linked his name with that of the great Ahura (asura) Mazda. From this standpoint Varuna should appear to us as an Indian transposition of the god preached by Zoroaster. Nothing escapes him. He restrains with his bonds those who break rules. He rewards and punishes, taking into account intention and penitence. He directs the physical as well as the moral world. His decrees (vrata) regulate the motions of the heavens and the circulation of waters - two closely connected facts. Of course some have exaggerated the apparent identity of Varuna with Uranus, as well as the supposedly marine character of Varuna. But the regulator of the seasons also controls the system of rains. This god presides over the sky, the air, and the waters. The wind is his breath, the stars are his eyes. He sees everything going on in the world, including every secret thought. Shining with a 'sombre light' Varuna is especially linked with the moon, that reservoir of sacrificial liquid, Soma. He presides over the care of this ambrosia throughout the alternating waxings and wanings of the planet. Moreover, the moon is the abiding place of the dead, and so Varuna shares with Yama, the first person who died, the title of King of the Dead. Varuna is represented as a white man riding on a sea monster, the makara, and holding a lasso - an allusion to his functions as judge. Hence his name of Pasi, as well as the epithets given him as the supremely wise, Prasetas, or as lord of the waters, Jalapati, Jadapati, Amburaja. It seems he fell in love with the nymph, Urvasi, at the same time as the Sun, Surya, and by her they had a son, Agastya, famous as an ascetic. Lord of physical and moral order, Varuna is omnipresent. 'He follows the track of the birds which fly in the sky like the wake of a ship' ploughing through the waves (Rig-Veda, I. 25); and knows the past and the future. He is a witness of every action, he is the 'third party' present at every gathering. No authority is equal to his. Nasatyas or Asvins: Ribhus There are almost as many opinions as experts in the interpretation of the last pair of gods mentioned as watching over the Mitanni. Their Vedic name most commonly used is 'the knights' or 'the horsemen', two golden or honey-colored twins. They bring up the morning light of the sky, making a path through the clouds for the Dawn-goddess, Ushas. At the evening twilight they play a similar part, and perhaps they must be identified with the Morning and Evening star. Their equivalence to the Greek Dioscuri cannot be called in question; they are Indo-European, and not solely Indian. They bear witness to that knightly ideal of the conquering aristocrats who introduced the horse to central and southern Asia. Their name Nasatya, which can be interpreted from the root-form nas, meaning 'to save', seems to be an allusion to their mission of beneficence. They are the doctors of the gods, the friends of the sick and unfortunate. They heal the blind, and the lame, and give back their youth to the old. They are kindly disposed to love and marriage. Their parents were the Sun and the cloud-goddess, Saranyu. As wife they have in common Surya, the daughter of Savitri, another aspect of solar light. Their whip scatters the dew. Their three-wheeled chariot was made by the triad of Rhibus, sons of the 'good archer', Sudhanvan. The name 'rhibu' implies genii skilled in constructing. They possess their own horses and prepare the equipment of the warrior gods, and they revolve chiefly round Indra. A graceful legend attests the 'chivalrous' character of the Asvins. In spite of their beauty and their beneficence they found that entry to heaven was forbidden them by the gods, on account of their humble birth. And this is how the wealthy Syavana, who received eternal youth from them, persuaded Indra to allow them among the gods. This old Risi had a beautiful young wife, Sukanya. The twins watched her when she was bathing and said to her: 'O woman of delicious limbs, why did thy father bestow thee on such an old man, on the edge of the grave? Thou art radiant as summer lightning, we have seen none like thee even in heaven. Even without any ornament thou art an embellishment to the whole forest. How much more beautiful wouldst thou be in rich robes and splendid jewels! Abandon thine ancient husband and choose one of us, for youth does not endure.' She replied: 'I am devoted to my husband, Syavana.' They insisted: 'We will make thy husband young and beautiful, and then thou shall choose which of us three thou wilt take as thy lord.' Sukanya repealed these words to her husband, who gave his consent He bathed in the lake along with the Asvins, and all three emerged young and radiant Sukanya, seeing all three alike, hesilated long in her choice, but when she finally recognized her husband she refused all except him. Syavana, delighted that he had kept his wife as well as receiving youth and beauly, persuaded Indra to allow the two horsemen to share the sacrifices made to the gods and lo enjoy 'soma' with them. Myths of Royalty. With the historical times which succeeded the age of the Vedas we find following on the religion of Indra and the Adityas certain Kshatriyan rites which gave rise to myths of supreme power. The Brahmans were careful to take part in these rites, in order to lose no occasion of influencing the rival caste. Whether it was a matter of the frequent investitures or the rare consecration of a king, the ceremonies of the aristocracy were intended to endow the beneficiaries with the authority of the noble or of the king, and as every divinity tends to become the absolute god, so every petty king imagined himself a ruler without an equal. Hence the obsessive myth of the cakravartin, the controller of the universal Dharma, a sovereign on an equality with a demiurge. Here may be seen the most decisive influence of Persia on India, among so many fundamental and permanent affinities. The cakravartin unites the fascinating legitimacy of Varuna with, the vigour of Indra. The asvamedha or horse-sacrifice was the most solemn of these rites. The slaying of a sacred horse, the peculiarly Aryan animal and constant symbol of the Sun, marked the taking possession, by the exceptionally powerful sovereign who carried out the rite, of the four cardinal points- hence, of everything. A quasi-coupling of the animal with the queen founded in addition the fecundity of Nature. Nothing was spared to give splendour to a ceremony whereby henceforth a potentate became identified with the solar body, the heart of the universe. The Kshatriya thus became the center of the world. MYTHOLOGY OF THE PRIESTLY CASTE Although its chief origins are derived from ancient Aryan practice, the mythology of the priestly caste corresponds to a later phase. In contrast to the simplicity of the religion of Indra, that of the Brahmans, the religion of Agni, allowed of endless developments and variations. The Religion of Agni Agni is a personification of fire, which had such immense prestige in the esteem of the Indo-Europeans, especially the Iranians. It started as the instrument of the cult, and became its object. The same flame wavers and crackles on the hearth, in the burning sunshine and in the flash of lightning. So Agni, like Indra, but in another sense, became the equivalent of the starry hearth-fire of the world and of the lightning which hurls down rain on the thirsty earth. They both, from this point of view, symbolise the relationship of Father Heaven and Mother Earth, which haunted Indo-European imagination. The anthropomorphic transformation of Agni scarcely started, but his ritualistic descriptions occupy a privileged place in the Veda and the Brahmanas - the face smeared with butter, the wild hair, swift tongues, sharpened jaws, golden teeth, are all aspects of the flames on which the oblation is thrown; the diverse nature which is described both as eagle and bull; Agni is born from the rubbing together ot two pieces of wood, the 'Aranis', and the poets marvel at the sight of a being so alive leaping from dry dead wood. His very growth is miraculous. Since his parents are incapable of providing for him, he devours them as soon as he is born, and then feeds on the oblations of clarified butter poured into his mouths of devouring flame. Agni also dwells in the waters and in the sky - under the form of lightning he tears asunder the cloud whose beneficent waters will fertilise the earth, and it is he who flames at the heart of the sun. He has many shapes, he plays the part of mediator let us say mythically, of messenger - for the gods as well as for mankind. He despises nobody, since he is the guest of every hearth. He is the intimate protector of the home, he is the domestic priest, yet reconciles the various priestly functions. He watches with a thousand eyes over Man who feeds him and brings him offerings, protects him against his enemies and grants him immortality. In a funerary hymn Agni is requested to rewarm with his flames the immortal being which subsists in the dead man, and to lead him to the world of the Just. Agni carries a man through calamities as a ship carries him over the sea. The wealth of all worlds is under his power, and that is why he is invoked to obtain abundant food, prosperity, and all temporal goods generally. He is also invoked for the forgiveness of sins committed under the sway of passing folly. He is called Agni, son of Heaven and of Earth, or the son of Brahma, or of Kasyapa and of Aditi, or of Angiras, king of the Manes. He is the husband of Svaha, and by her has three sons: Pavaka, Pavamana and Suci. Again, he is described as a red man with three legs, seven arms and black eyes and hair. He rides on a ram, and wears the Brahmanic cord with a garland of fruits. Flames spout from his mouth, and his body sends forth seven rays of light. His attributes are the axe, wood, the bellows (a fan), the torch, and the sacrificial spoon. Agni made the sun, and filled the night with stars. The gods fear him and do him homage, for he knows the secrets of mortals. According to the ritual directions, three different kinds of fire should be lighted - to the East, the ahavaniya or vaisvanara fire, for offerings to the gods; to the South, the dakshina (narasamsa) fire for the cult of the Manes: and to the West, the garhapatya fire for the cooking of food and for offerings. These hearths represent respectively the sky with the sun, the intermediate air (abode of the dead and domain of the winds), and the earth. The sacrificial rites symbolise the correspondences between these three worlds. Numerous myths express these fundamental correlations. We may note that of the Bhrigus, aerial gods of the storm who bring heaven and earth into communication; and the myth of Matarisvan, who receives and transmits the fire of heaven. The Bhrigus and the Matarisvan represent the wind, so closely connected with fire which is sometimes considered its cause and sometimes its effect. According to a later tradition (Visnu Purana) Bhrigu was one of the first wise men, and ancestor of the family which bears his name; the word itself suggests fire, since it means 'born of flames'. Legend relates that one day Bhrigu cursed Agni. A woman named Puloma was betrothed to a demon, and Bhrigu seeing she was beautiful fell in love with her and, after marrying her according to the Vedic rites, secretly abducted her. But thanks to Agni's information the demon discovered the place where the young woman promised to him was hidden, and brought her back to his dwelling. Furious with Agni for helping the demon. Bhrigu cursed him, saying: 'Henceforth thou shall eat of all things.' Agni demanded of Bhrigu the reason for this curse since he had only told the demon the truth. He pointed out that if a man is questioned and tells a lie he is cast into hell, along with seven generations of his ancestors and seven generations of his children. Moreover, the man who fails to give information is equally guilty. And Agni went on to say: T too can hurl curses but I respect the Brahmans and I control my anger. In truth I am the mouth of the gods and of the ancestors. When clarified butter is offered them, they receive it thanks to me, their mouth, so how can you tell me to eat all things?' Hearing these words, Bhrigu agreed to change his curse and said: 'As the sun purifies all Nature with his light and heat, so Agni shall purify everything which enters his flames.' Soma Another polymorphic deity. But this made him all the more efficient and venerable. Soma (Haoma of the Avesta) is first and foremost a plant, an essential part of the ancient sacrificial offerings. It is also the juice of the plant, obtained by squeezing it between two millstones. Then it is golden nectar, the drink of the gods--a precious ambrosia which symbolizes immortality and ensures victory over death to all who drink of it. The myths show Soma in a multitude of different forms. Turn by turn he is a celestial bull, a bird, an embryo, a giant of the waters, the king of plants, the divine power which cures all evils, the dwelling place of Manes, and even the prince of poets! He is even the source of Inspiration and the principle of life. He rewards heroism and virtue. He is also the link between heaven and mankind. But very frequently (above all at a somewhat later epoch) Soma personifies the moon. Certain passages in the later Vedic hymns, or the Puranas, mark the transition between Soma considered as ambrosia and Soma as the moon. 'May the god Soma, he who is called the moon, liberate me.' Sometimes the two conceptions are confounded: 'Thanks to Soma the Adityas are powerful; thanks to Soma the earth is large; and Soma is placed in the midst of the stars. When the plant is crushed, he who drinks of it considers it as soma. But no one can drink what the priests consider as soma.' Soma, the moon (the name in Sanskrit is masculine), was born from the churning of the sea. (This episode is related on page 379.) The twenty-seven lunar stations are his wives. They are the daughters of Daksha (also father-in-law of Siva and Kasyapa). The phenomenon of the periodical waning of the moon is sometimes explained by the fact that the gods, during its periods of regular rotation, drink in turn the soma it contains; but the waning is more usually attributed to a curse of Daksha. Daksha thought that Soma was too exclusively devoted to one of his daughters, Rohini, and condemned his son-in-law to die of consumption; but thanks to the urgent entreaties of his wives Soma's punishment was made periodical and not eternal. Another legend makes Soma spring from the eye of the wise man Atri, son of Brahma. After the Rajasuya sacrifice celebrated at his coronation by a universal king with his subject princes, whereby his domination was sanctified, Soma looked upon his immense empire and was intoxicated with the glory which he had obtained. He became arrogant, and so licentious that he dared to carry off Tara, the wife of Brihaspati. the teacher of the gods. In vain Brihaspati tried to recover his wife, in vain Brahma ordered Soma to return Tara to her husband. A great war broke out, with the gods on one side led by Tara, and on the other side Soma aided by the demons. Finally Tara appealed for protection to Brahma who compelled Soma to release his fair captive. But when she returned Brihaspati perceived that she was with child, and refused to receive her before her child was born. Miraculously obeying these injunctions the child was born at once. He was so radiant with power and beauty that both Soma and Brihaspati claimed him as their son. They questioned Tara, but her confusion prevented her from answering. The child became indignant and was about to utter a curse. But Brahma again intervened, quieted the child, and said to Tara: 'Tell me, my child, is he the son of Brihaspati or of Soma?' 'Of Soma', she confessed with a blush. As soon as she had spoken the Lord of constellations with radiant countenance embraced his son, saying: 'That is well, my son; indeed, you are intelligent.' And that is why he was called Buddha. Soma's son is considered as the founder of the lunar dynasties. He must not be confused with the Buddha who is claimed by the Buddhists. They are two quite different persons. And now come other gods of priestly origin, so many personified aspects of ritual efficacy. Savitar (Savitri) This god is the principle of movement which causes the sun to shine, the waters and the winds to circulate. Whoever acts has a share in him - Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and especially Surya, the Sun. As the universal motive power he is the equal of Prajapati, Puchan and Tvashtar. It is obvious how useful such an intermediary would be in the magical work of sacrifice. Savitar has golden eyes, golden hands, and tongues of gold. He rides in a chariot drawn by glittering steeds with white hoofs. His golden arms are extended over all heaven in movements of benediction, infusing life into all creatures. He is the King of heaven, the other gods follow him, and he bestows immortality upon them. He is prayed to for the remission of sins, and to lead souls to the dwelling of the just. To him is devoted the Gavatri, the most sacred text of the Vedas, according to the Hindus. Every true Brahman should chant it when he rises, and this formula is supposed to exercise its magical powers on behalf of the reciter. Surya Like Savitar he stands for the Sun and is often identified with him, but he is a divinity of rather a different character, especially in the Puranas. He is described as a dark red man, with three eyes and four arms. Two of his hands hold water-lilies, the third blesses, and with the fourth he encourages his worshippers. Sometimes he is seated on a red lotus, and rays of glory spread from his body. In the Vishnu Purana (Book III, Chapter II), Surya marries Sanjna. the daughter of Visvakarma. After bearing him three children, she was so exhausted by the perpetual dazzling lavished by her husband that she had to leave him, and before going she arranged for Shaya (the Shade) to take her place. After several years Surya noticed the change, and went off to look for Sanjna. After various adventures he brought her home, but to prevent any further flights his father-in-law took away an eighth of Surya's splendour. Visvakarma, a skilled worker, made good use of this fragment of shining energy by using it to forge the disk of Vishnu, the trident of Siva, the lance of Karttikeya the god of war, and the weapons of Kuvera the god and guardian of wealth. A passage in the Brahma Purana alludes to Surya's twelve names, each of which was followed by special epithets, as if they referred to twelve different solar divinities: 'The first form of the sun is Indra, lord of the gods and destroyer of their enemies; the second is Dhata, creator of all things; the third is Parjanya, who dwells in the clouds and with his rays sends down water on the earth; the fourth is Tvashta, who lives in all corporal forms; the fifth is Puchan, who provides food for all living things; the sixth is Aryama who brings sacrifices to fruition; the seventh derives his name from alms-giving and rejoices all beggars by his gifts; the eighth is named Vivasvan and causes good digestion; the ninth is Vishnu who constantly manifests himself to destroy the enemies of the gods; the tenth is Ansuman who keeps all vital organs in good health; the eleventh is Varuna who dwells in the heart of the waters and gives life to the universe; and the twelfth is Mitra who lives in the orb of the moon for the welfare of the three worlds. Such are the twelve splendours of the Sun, the supreme Spirit, who by their means plunges into the universe and irradiates even the secret souls of men.' Ushas This goddess, who symbolises the dawn, has been sung especially by the Vedic poets, and the hymns addressed to her are among the most beautiful in the Vedas. She is the daughter of Heaven and the sister of Night. She is related to Varuna. Sometimes the Sun is spoken of as her husband, or Fire as her lover. In some hymns Ushas is praised as mother of the Sun. The Asvins are her friends. At one time Indra was thought of as her creator, but at another time he is hostile to her, and destroys her chariot with a thunderbolt. Ushas travels in a shining chariot drawn by cows or reddish horses. The poets liken her sometimes to a charming girl dressed by her mother's care, and sometimes to a dancing-girl covered with jewels. Or she is a lovely girl coming out of her bath, or a wife dressed in magnificent clothes to meet her husband. Ever-smiling, confident in the irresistible power of her charms, she moves forward half-opening her veils. She drives away darkness, and reveals treasures hidden in its folds. She gives light to the world even to the most distant horizon. She is the life and the health of all things. It is thanks to her that the birds can take flight in the morning. Like the young mistress of a house, she awakens all creatures and orders them to their different work. She performs a service to the gods by waking those who intend to worship them and to light the fires of sacrifice. She is besought only to waken the good and the generous, and to let the wicked sleep. She is young, she is born anew every morning, and yet old, since she is immortal. While generation after generation passes away, the dawn exists forever. Puchan He brings all things, moving and immobile, into relationship with one another. For example, he carries out marriage. He protects, and he liberates. He provides food, and he fattens cattle. He must obviously be the reflection of some ancient fecundity rite. He often travels, he knows the roads, he is the guide and patron of travellers. He also leads the spirits of the dead into the other world. A hymn in the Rig-Veda invokes him as follows: 'Lead us, O Puchan, on our way. Son of the liberator, save us from agony; do thou walk before us. Drive away the evil and ravening wolf which seeks for us. Keep our road free from robbers, and set your foot on the burning weapons of the wretched exploiter, whoever he may be. O wise and miracle-powered Puchan, grant us your help as you gave it to our forefathers. O god through whom are all benedictions, your attribute is a gold lance - let us win riches easily. Make smooth our path when we travel. Give us strength. Lead us into rich pastures. May adversity never come our way. Feed and encourage us, and fill our bellies.' And in another hymn: 'O Puchan, may we meet with a wise man who will guide us at once, saying: "Behold your way."' 'May Puchan take care of our cows and protect our horses. May he give us food. Come to us, O shining god, O liberator, may we meet together.' Prajapati Prajapati, the master of created beings, and Visvakarma, the universal agent, embody potency in a less concrete form, and in the Brahmanas are almost identical. They became independent only through a progress in abstraction, but Visvakarma had once been an epithet applied to Indra and the Sun; while Prajapati had been applied to Savitar and Soma. Visvakarma ordered all things and sees everything; he made the foundations and the distinctions of everything; Prajapati is a father and the protector of those who beget. Gods and asuras are his children. A loftier abstraction makes him the absolute, Brahma, and even the indefinable absolute, whose sole fitting name is 'Who?' (Ka). Brihaspati The final form is Bramanaspati, the master of magical power involved in ritual formula - he is the priesthood itself. This god is called the chaplajn, the brahman, the brahmanic priest. In many places he is confused with Agni, and a special correlation links him with the fire of the South, the fire of the Manes, probably because of the importance attached by Hindus to funeral rites. In Brahmanic literature, properly so called, which is later than the Vedic hymns, especially in the Brahmanas and Upanishads, the 'master of the Formula' and 'the master of created things' acquired a cosmological value. With these two entities we leave the pantheon and mythology, and touch the beginnings of metaphysics. Prajapati's origin is not a god but Thought (Taittiriya Brah. II, 2, 9, 10) or the Brahman (Brihadaranyaka Up.. V. 5, 1); his demiurgic activity consists in begetting gods (ibid.) or creatures. And since they 'remained vaguely united he entered into them through form. That is why they say: "Prajapati is form." Then he entered into them by their name. And that is why they say: "Prajapati is the name.'" (Tail. Br. II, 2, 7, 1). The following divinities take us back to the Vedas. Aditi. She is the mother of the Adityas, Mitra and Varuna. Literally Aditi means 'free from bonds'. No doubt this refers to the boundless sky, which is the abode of her 'children' sun and moon, night and day. The historian is tempted to rank this mother as later than her children, for they became Indian, while she is no older than 'In-dianity'. 'Aditi is the sky, the air . .. all gods, the five nations (Aryan). Aditi is the past and the future. 'The august mother of the supporters of justice (Mitra and Varuna), the wife of Order, we call you to our aid, O powerful, ever young, far-spreading, kind shelterer, good leader, Aditi! 'The solid earth and the sinless heavens, kind shelterer and good leader. Aditi, we call upon you. The divine ship with strong rowers which never sinks, may we meet with it, and free from sin attain salvation!" Tvashtar The special characteristic of Tvashtar is a hand at work. This 'worker' forged the thunderbolt of Indra as well as that cup reserved for ambrosia, the moon. He is called the universal exciter in all forms (savita visvarupa) and so he becomes the equivalent of Savitar, and therefore of solar nature. The other gods are Nature gods and need no analysis or special explanation: Vata or Vayu, the Wind; Parjanya, the Rain; Apa, the Waters; Prithivi, the Earth. POPULAR MYTHOLOGY: THE DEMONS The Indian conception of demons is special to them, and moreover has many different aspects. To start with, the line separating demons from gods is not very clear. Generally 'Devas' are translated as 'gods' and 'Asuras' as 'demons', but in point of fact both are essentially beings gifted with a remarkable and mysterious power which is manifested simultaneously by moral and physical attributes. For instance, Varuna who enjoys a remarkable moral prestige is ranked an 'asura' while Indra, unquestionably less refined, is a 'deva'. Surya, the sun, is called 'the asura-chaplain of the Devas'. In the later Artharva Veda the word 'asura' is applied only to demons, and henceforth that is the generally received meaning. In Iran on the contrary the same term is used to mean the divinity, Ahura. Henceforth the Devas and the Asuras are often seen at war with one another. According to the Satapatha Brahmana, Prajapati is their common ancestor. But the Devas rejected falsehood and chose the truth, while the Asuras rejected truth and chose falsehood. As they spoke only truth, the gods appeared to be weak; but in the end they became strong and attained prosperity. The Asuras at first by their lies won riches, but in the end found destruction. Another legend says that the Asuras when making sacrifice put the offerings in their own mouths, whereas the gods offer them to one another. In spite of their rivalry with the Asuras, the Devas were glad to accept the help of their enemies for the churning of the sea, and at this task the demons showed quite as much skill and energy as the gods. (See page 379.) Generally speaking, it is clear that the popular deities, only slightly Aryan and usually not Aryan at all, were described by the Aryans as demoniacal. Some of them have remained demons until our own times. Others were incorporated sooner or later into the Brahmanic pantheon, almost always retaining certain peculiarities which show their origin. For instance, the terrible forms of the cult of Siva in his aspect as destroyer, the fact that the demons are among his sectaries, and that he is sometimes called 'lord of demons' (Bhutapati) seem to point to a non-Aryan origin of his deity. The legend of his marriage with the daughter of Daksha is further confirmation of this hypothesis. Daksha, one of the Prajapatis or lords of creation, out of vanity became violently hostile to Siva. Daksha's daughter, Sati, a real incarnation of feminine devotion and piety, had secretly given her heart to the cult of the condemned god. When the time came for her betrothal her father ordered a Svayamara (the ceremony where a king's daughter chose her husband from the assembled suitors) and purposely omitted to invite Siva. When Sati came forward, holding in her hand the garland of flowers which she was to cast round the neck of her chosen husband, she uttered a supreme invocation to the god she loved. 'If it is true that I am called Sati,' she exclaimed, throwing her flowers in the air. 'O Siva, take my garland!' And immediately Siva appeared, with her garland on his shoulders. Yet later on this union was considered a misalliance. When Daksha went to war with his son-in-law, he called him 'the god with the monkey's eyes who married my daughter with her gazelle's eyes'. 'It was against my will', he says further, 'that I gave my daughter to this sullied personage, the abolisher of rites and destroyer of boundaries...He frequents horrible cemeteries, accompanied by crowds of spirits and ghosts, looking like a madman, naked, with dishevelled hair, wearing a garland of skulls and human bones...a lunatic beloved by lunatics, lord of the demons whose nature is wholly obscure. Alas! at the urging of Brahma I gave my virtuous daughter to this lord of furies, this evil heart.' Often the demons have only a passing life. Sometimes created by the gods for some particular circumstance -- for instance, to conquer the Asuras themselves - these evil beings afterwards disappear for ever as mysteriously as they were born. Again, the gods and goddesses sometimes assume terrible shapes to fight with the demons. For instance, we shall see in the legend of Hiranyakasipu how Vishnu devours his victim in the form of a cruel monster with a lion's head. But the most typical example of these metamporphoses is certainly that of Siva's wife. Under the name of Parvati she is presented as a very beautiful young woman, seated beside her divine husband, discoursing with him sometimes of love and sometimes of lofty metaphysics. In the shape of Uma she practices the harshest asceticism on the peaks of the Himalayas in order to attract Siva's attention and so be received into his favor. But under the name of Durga, and in response to an appeal from the gods, she undertakes to destroy a demon who had dethroned them all. The battle is terrible. The demon changes into a buffalo, an elephant, and a giant with a thousand arms. But Durga is invincible. Mounted on a lion she overcomes the monster, and despatches him by thrusting her lance into his heart. Durga is represented with a serene and beautiful face, but she has ten arms, each with a weapon. One of her hands holds the lance which pierces the heart of the conquered demon. Her right foot is on the lion, and her left on the demon's neck. Siva's wife assumed as many as ten terrifying shapes to destroy the demons. One of the most horrible and the most venerated was that of Kali, often called Kali Ma (the black mother). In this incarnation the goddess fought with Raktavija, chief of the army of demons. Seeing that gradually all his soldiers were being killed, Raktavija attacked the goddess himself. She smote him with her formidable weapons, but every drop of blood which fell from his body gave birth to a thousand giants as powerful as he. Kali was only able to overcome her adversary by drinking all his blood. Having conquered the giant she began to dance with joy so wildly that the whole earth quaked. At the request of the gods her husband begged her to stop, but in her sacred madness she did not even see him. cast him down among the dead and trod on his body. When at last she realized her mistake she was covered with shame. Kali is represented as a woman with a very dark complexion, with long loose hair, and four arms. One of her hands holds a sword; the second holds the severed head of the giant; and with the other two hands she encourages her worshippers. Her ear-rings are two corpses and she wears a necklace of human skulls. Her only garment is a girdle made up of two rows of hands. Her tongue hangs out, her eyes are red, as if she were drunk, her face and bosom are polluted with blood. The goddess is generally shown standing, with one foot on the leg and the other on the chest of Siva. The Tattiriya Samhita puts evil beings into three categories -the Asuras are opposed to the gods, the Rakshasas to men, and the Pisakas to the dead. But these categories are much less clearly denned in practice than in theory. The Asuras The Asuras are a kind of very powerful Titans, skilled magicians and implacable enemies of the Devas. As will be observed in the legends which follow, they are sometimes superior to the gods and - this is a curious detail - their power has often been conferred on them by the gods themselves, who thus turn out to be the artisans of their own defeat. The story of Jalandhara is characteristic of the various battles which were waged continually between the Devas and the Asuras. One day Indra and the other gods paid a visit to Siva on mount Kailasi, and amused him with songs and dances. Siva was delighted by the music, and begged his visitors to ask a boon. Indra, in a defiant way, wished to become a warrior as powerful as Siva himself. The wish was granted, and the gods departed. Siva then began to wonder what use Indra would make of his new power; and as he meditated a shape of anger, black as darkness itself, rose before him and said: 'Give me your form, and tell me what I can do for you.' Siva told him to enter the river Ganga (the Ganges) and to wed her to the Ocean. A son was born from this union - the earth quaked and wept, the three worlds echoed with claps of thunder. Brahma perceived the extraordinary strength of this miraculous child, gave him the name of Jalandhara and the gift of conquering the gods and possessing the three worlds. Jalandhara's youth was filled with miracles - he soared over the oceans on the wings of the winds, and played with the lions he had tamed. Later his father gave him a splendid kingdom, and he wedded Vrinda, the daughter of a heavenly nymph, also renowned in legend. Soon after his marriage he declared war on the gods under the pretext of regaining the wonders born from the churning of the sea of milk, which had been taken for himself by Indra. The battle began, and on each side thousands of warriors were slain. The gods regained life and health thanks to magic plants gathered in the mountains. Jalandhara had received from Brahma himself the power of resurrecting the dead. Indra in his turn was attacked by Jalandhara, but Vishnu went to the rescue. The Asuras fought so valiantly that their arrows darkened the sky, but Vishnu drove them before him like dead leaves. Jalandhara then flooded the mountains where the gods found the magic plants which restore life. Vishnu himself attacked Jalandhara, but this time the demon succeeded in overthrowing him, and only spared his life at the entreaty of the goddess, Lakshmi. Jalandhara, having conquered the Devas, drove them from heaven, and reposed in peace. However, the gods refused to accept their fate, deprived as they were of their heavenly abodes, of sacrifices, and of ambrosia. They consulted Brahma, who led them to Siva. Seated on his throne, and accompanied by myriads of devoted followers, all of them naked, all deformed, with tangled curly hair, Siva advised the gods to pool their powers and to forge a weapon capable of annihilating their common foe. The gods, burning with anger, cast forth masses of flame, to which Siva added the burning rays of his third eye. Vishnu brought the fire of his rage, and also besought Siva to cause the demon to perish. Siva then approached the huge burning mass, set his heel on it, and began to revolve with dizzy speed. Thus a glistening disk was forged. Its rays singed the beard of Brahma, who peered at it too closely, and the gods, were blinded by it. But Siva hid the weapon under his arm, and the battle began again. But now the war was complicated by a love affair - Jalandhara wanted to abduct Siva's wife, Parvati. She escaped him by changing into a lotus, and her ladies of honour were changed into bees and flew about her. On the other hand Vishnu was more cunning, and having assumed the form of Jalandhara succeeded in seducing his wife. But Vrinda discovered the trick and died of grief, laying curses on the seducer. Jalandhara was wild with rage when he heard of his wife's lamentable end. He gave up Parvati, returned to the battlefield, resurrected his dead heroes, and launched a final assault. Siva and Jalandhara defied each other to single combat. After a fierce struggle Siva brought forth the disk, and cut off the head of his adversary. But he had the power to make it constantly spring up again. Would Siva in his turn be beaten? No, for he called on the goddesses, wives of the gods. Transmuted into she-ogres they drank the Asura's blood, and thus Siva succeeded in mastering him and in regaining for the gods their possessions and their kingdom. The Rakshasas The Rakshasas often have a half-divine nature, but whereas the gods often display generosity, kindness, mastery and truth, the Rakshasas display the most deplorable passions - gluttony, lust, violence, perjury - at any rate in their relations with gods and men. Among themselves they show filial and conjugal affection, good faith and devotion. They are great Magicians, and have power to assume any shape they wish. The city of the Rakshasas is wonderfully beautiful, having been built by the architect of the gods, Visvakarma himself. They practise all the arts, and by austerity and penance sometimes obtain great favours of the gods. In general the Rakshasas are not by nature evil beings, but creatures destined by inescapable fate (Dharma) to play a hostile or malevolent part in the life of such and such a person in such and such a situation. In some cases this part is the natural consequence of a former life, whose fruit thus comes to maturity. An example is given us by the three incarnations of the demon Ravana. One day a being of high rank in the heaven of Vishnu committed a grave error. He had to return to earth to expiate it. He was given the choice between three incarnations as the enemy, or seven incarnations as the friend of Vishnu. He chose the former alternative as it was the quicker way to be free. In consequence certain incarnations of Vishnu have no other reason than the need for him to be on earth at the same time as his temporary enemy, and to slay him in order to procure his redemption. Ravana's First Incarnation: Hiranyakasipu Hiranyakasipu was a very powerful demon-king. Thanks to the power he had received from Brahma himself he succeeded in dethroning Indra and exiling the gods from heaven. He proclaimed himself king of the universe, and forbade worship of anyone but himself. However, his son Prahlada consecrated himself to Vishnu, who had initiated him into the secrets of his heart. Hiranyakasipu, irritated by the sight of his son devoting himself to the cult of a mortal enemy, inflicted on the young man a series of cruel tortures in order to turn him from his vocation. But his fervour simply increased, and he began to preach the religion of Vishnu to men and demons. Hiranyakasipu ordered the death of this unmanageable missionary. But the sword, poison, fire, wild elephants, and magic incantations failed to harm him, for Prahlada was protected by his god. Hiranyakasipu once more called his son to him. Prahlada with immense gentleness tried again to convince his father of Vishnu's greatness and omnipresence, but the demon angrily exclaimed: 'If Vishnu is everywhere, how does it happen that my eyes don't see him?' He kicked one of the pillars in his audience chamber, saying: 'Is he here, for instance?' 'Even when invisible he is present in all things,' said Prahlada softly. Whereupon Hiranyakasipu uttered a blasphemy and kicked the pillar, which fell on the floor. Immediately Vishnu emerged from the pillar in the shape of a lion-headed man (in his incarnation as Narasimha), seized on the demon, and tore him to shreds. Prahlada succeeded his father, and reigned with justice and wisdom. His grandson was the demon Bali, who also was a rival of the gods, but was as virtuous as he was powerful. Bali reigned over heaven and earth. Only Vishnu could conquer so powerful a king. The gods besought him to be re-incarnated, so that he could regain the kingdom which belonged to them. And Vishnu agreed to be born again in the shape of a dwarf Brahman. While Bali was offering up a sacrifice on the bank of the river sacred to the Narmada, the dwarf came to visit him. Bali knew his duty. He touched his forehead with the precious water which had cooled the Brahman's feet, bade him be welcome, and offered to grant whatever he desired. The dwarf replied modestly: 'I ask only a little piece of land, three steps, which I shall carefully pace out. I desire no more. A wise man does not ask for more than is necessary to him.' Although surprised by so humble a request, the king granted the gift. Then Vishnu suddenly reassumed his divine stature, and in two steps traversed the whole universe. He still had a third step to take. He turned to Bali and said: 'Asura, you promised me three steps of land. In two steps I have traversed the world - where shall I make the third? Every man who fails to give a Brahman what he has promised is doomed to fall. You have deceived me, and deserve to sink into the regions of hell.' 'I do not fear hell so much as a bad reputation,' answered Bali, and he presented his head for the god's third step, and was cast down into the depths of the underworld for ever. Another legend has Bali slain by the hand of Indra during the battle waged between Indra and the demons led by Jalandhara. Bali fell, and a flood of jewels came from his mouth. Indra drew near in surprise, and tore his body to pieces with a thunderbolt. Bali was so pure in his conduct that the various parts of his body gave birth to the-germs of precious stones. Diamonds came from his bones, sapphires from his eyes, rubies from his blood, emeralds from his marrow, crystal from his flesh, and pearls from his teeth. Second Incarnation: Ravana The demon Ravana is the implacable enemy of Rama (an incarnation of Vishnu) and the abductor of Sita. His story will be given in great detail in the Ramayana account (see page 381). We shall merely note here that on the eve of the decisive battle in which he was slain Ravana had a short moment of lucidity in which he admitted the divinity of Rama. He then exlaimed: 'I must die by his hand. That is why I abducted the daughter of Janaka (Sita). Neither passion nor anger urged me to retain her. I want to die to attain the heaven of Vishnu.' Alongside the story of Ravana. we hear of two brothers. One of them, Kumbhakarna, is a sort of giant-ogre. As soon as he was born he stretched out his arms and grasped everything within his reach to allay his hunger. Later he seized five hundred Apsaras (heavenly nymphs) and abducted the wives of a hundred Rishis, not to mention cows and Brahmans. To calm the fears aroused by this demon, Brahma wanted to confer on him the gift of eternal sleep; but Kumbhakarna asked to be allowed to wake up every six months and eat to repletion. In this bi-annual meal he is said to have devoured six thousand cows, ten thousand sheep, ten thousand goats, four hundred buffaloes, while drinking four thousand bowls of strong liquor in the skull of a wild boar. And he complained of his brother for not giving him more! Ravana's other brother, Vibhishana, refused to join the war against Rama and urged his brother to give Sita back to her husband. But Ravana drove him away with curses. Rising into the air with four of his friends, Vibhishana passed over the sea and offered his services to Rama. They were accepted, and Rama undertook in exchange to place Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka (Ceylon) after the defeat of Ravana. Third Incarnation: Sisupala Sisupala was the son of a king, but he had three eyes and four arms. His father and mother were terrified by this omen, and were getting ready to abandon him when a voice rang through the air: 'Fear not! Cherish the child. His time is not yet come. He that will slay him by force of arms on the day of destiny is already born. Until then he will be the favourite of fortune and renown.' The queen his mother was somewhat comforted by these words, and said: 'Who is he who shall kill my son?' And the voice replied: 'You shall know him by this sign -when the child is on his knees his third eye will disappear and you will see his extra arms fall off.' The king and queen then set out on their travels, and visited all the.monarchs of the neighboring lands. At each place they asked their host to take the child on his knees, but nothing of his appearance was changed. They returned home disappointed. Some time afterwards the young prince Krishna (another incarnation of Vishnu) paid them a visit accompanied by his elder brother. The two lads began to play with the child, and as soon as Krishna had taken him on his knees the baby's third eye withered away and his extra arms vanished. The queen then knew the future slayer of her son. Falling on her knees, she exclaimed: 'O my lord, grant me a boon.' 'Speak,' said the young god. 'Promise me that if my son should offend you, you will forgive him.' 'Certainly. Even if he offends me a hundred times, I will forgive him.' However, the fate predicted had to. befall. Many years later the king Yudhishthira celebrated a great sacrifice in honour of his cornonation. Kings and heroes were invited to his festivities. Krishna was present, and the royal family had decided to offer him their homage first of all. But one of the guests makes a protest. Sisupala bitterly reproaches the hosts, saying: 'You insult all the kings present by giving precedence to someone who has no right to it, either from his connections, his age, his lineage or for any other reason.' Sisupala argues his case so cleverly that some of the guests are ready to take his part. Would they prevent the consummation of the sacrifice, which would be a certain token of misfortune for the whole kingdom? King Yudhishthira did everything he could to conciliate Sisupala, but he refused to be cajoled. Yudhishthira then turned to his old grandfather Brahma for his advice, and he answered smiling: 'The lord Krishna himself will decide the dispute. What can a dog do against a lion? This king seems like a lion so long as the real lion is not awake. Let us wait.' Sisupala was furious at being likened to a dog and insulted the venerable old man, who maintained his serenity, and prevented the others from intervening on his behalf to avenge him. He lifted his hand to command silence, and then told his guests the story of Sisupala and the predictions made long ago to his parents. Sisupala's mad rage knew no bounds. He drew his sword and threatened the old man while again insulting him. The old man still remained calm and, turning his gaze towards Krishna, said with diginity: 'I fear nothing, for we have with us the lord we all worship. Let anyone who wants a quick death contend with him - the dark-colored god who bears in his hands the disk and the mace - and when he dies he will enter the god's body.' All eyes were turned towards Krishna who looked mildly on the angry king. But when Sisupala repeated his threats and insults, the god said simply: 'The cup of your misdeeds is now full.' At that very moment the divine weapon, the flaming disk, rose behind Krishna, sped through the air and fell on the helmet of Sisupala, whom it cleft asunder from head to feet. Then the sinner's soul broke out like a mass of fire which moved forward to bow before Krishna, and was absorbed in his feet. Thus, as the elder had predicted, he was mingled with the god at his death. Thus ended Sisupala who had sinned unto one hundred and one times and yet was pardoned, for even the god's enemies attain salvation by thinking of him continually. The Pisakas are almost always vampires. The Bhutas and Pretas are sometimes ghosts, sometimes goblins. They are rather vague spirits who haunt in bands the cemeteries and other places of evil omen. The Nagas The Nagas are a fabulous race of snakes. They are powerful and dangerous, and usually appear in the form of ordinary snakes, but sometimes as fabulous snakes and, in some circumstances, in human form. There are snake-kings, such as that Takshaka whose glittering capital is the glory of the underworld kingdom. Certain royal families or dynasties reckoned Nagas among their ancestors. Statues of divinised Nagas are still commonly worshipped in the South of India. Needless to say a symbolical and highly metaphysical sense is now attached to the cult. The statues are always placed under a tree. On a private property custom even demands that an uncultivated space shall be left round the god-snakes for the jungle to grow freely. The popular belief is that if the snakes have their own domain reserved to them they are more likely to spare human beings. In Mythology the Nagas and their wives, the Naginis, often play a fatal part, and their favorite methods are surprise and trickery. But there are exceptions. In epochs of cosmic rest Vishnu sleeps under the protection of the great snake, Sesha, who forms his bed while his seven raised heads give the god shade. Reptiles in general are supposed to be gifted with amazing powers, and the fact that they are amphibious seems to have greatly struck the imagination of the Indians. Here briefly summarised are two legends from the Mahabharata, where we come on Takshaka, king of the Nagas. Parikchit King Parikchit was passionately fond of hunting. One day when he was exhausted with fatigue and thirst after a long pursuit of a wounded gazelle, it happened that he unintentionally offended a hermit of the highest virtue who was observing a vow of silence in the heart of the forest. The wise man's son was indignant at this insult to his father, and placed his curse on the king, saying: 'Within a week the snake Takshaka will burn you with his poison, and you will die.' When the king heard this fatal news he built a palace on top of a column which stood in the middle of a lake, and decided to shut himself up there. But Takshaka succeeded in overcoming the vigilance of the guards by a ruse. He changed some snakes into wandering monks and sent them to the king bearing offerings of water, the sacred plant and fruits. The king received them, accepted their gifts and dismissed them. Then the king said to his ministers and friends: 'Let your excellencies eat with me the delicious fruits brought by these ascetics.' Among the open fruits there appeared a strange insect shining like red copper, with glittering eyes. The king picked up the insect and said: 'The sun is about to set, and I have now no fear of death. Let the hermit's speech be accomplished, let this insect bite me.' And he put it on his neck. Then the snake Takshaka, for he it was, wrapped the king in his coils and uttered a great roar. Seeing the king caught in the snake's coils the counsellors burst into tears and suffered the keenest grief. They then fled from the monster's roaring, and even as they ran they saw the marvellous reptile rise into the air. Takshaka, king of the snakes, red as a lotus, traced across the forehead of heaven a line as straight as that which parts the hair on the head of a bride. The king fell dead as if struck by lightning, and the palace was wrapped in fire. Afterwards they carried out for Parikchit all the ceremonies relating to the next world. Then the chaplain, the ministers, and all the assembled subjects acclaimed the new king, his son Janame-jaya, who was still a child. Utanka and the Earrings A young Brahman student, Utanka, was told to take to his tutor's wife a pair of earrings, which had been given her by the queen. This queen (who was the wife of king Janamejaya, son of the king Parikchit who figures in the preceding tale) warned the young man that the king of snakes, Takshaka, had long coveted these jewels. The Brahman set out, and on the way noticed a naked beggar who sometimes approached and sometimes disappeared from sight. Soon after, Utanka stopped to perform his ablutions, and laid the earrings on the ground. The beggar glided up swiftly towards the jewels, grasped them and fled. When his ablutions were finished Utanka discovered the theft, and eagerly pursued the thief. But at the moment when Utanka got his hands on him the robber abandoned his borrowed shape, became a snake again, and glided into a cleft which opened into the earth. Having thus returned to the world of snakes, the cunning Takshaka took refuge in his palace. Utanka then remembered the queen's words. But how was he to get at Takshaka? He began to search the hole with the end of his staff, but without success. Indra saw he was overwhelmed with grief and sent his thunderbolt, saying: 'Go, and bring aid to this Brahman!' The thunder descended, entered the cleft by following the staff, and burst open the hole. Utanka followed in its tracks. Having entered the limitless world of snakes, he found it was full of admirable establishments for games, both large and small, and crowded with hundreds of porticoes, turrets, palaces and temples, of different types of architecture. He then chanted a hymn in praise of the Nagas, but although the snakes were smothered with praise they did not return the jewels. Thereupon Utanka entered into meditation. A marvellous symbolical vision of nights and days, of (he year and the seasons, unrolled before his eyes; and then he saw Indra himself mounted on a horse. He praised the god in a sacred chant, and Indra, well-pleased, offered his help. Utanka asked: 'Put the snakes into my power.' 'Breathe on the crupper of my horse,' replied Indra. Utanka obeyed, and the steed suddenly caused an outburst of huge flames accompanied by smoke. The world of snakes was buried in the smoke; and terrified by the glow of the fire Takshaka hastily emerged from his palace and returned the ear-rings to the young Brahman. Indra then lent Utanka his miraculous steed which brought the young man to his tutor in a second. He arrived just in time to hand the jewels at the time appointed to his tutor's wife as she had asked. Rudra and the Maruts The Indological school of Uppsala, K.F. Johansson and his followers E. Arbman and J. Charpentier, have lately found numerous traces of popular religion in the Vedas. The cult of Rudra plays a central part in it. This prince of demons (Bhudapati) is a savage figure, and god of the dead, in as much as he and his crew feed on the departed, like the followers of Odin in Nordic mythology. He is an earth god, but on the evidence of a single passage in the Rig-Veda which gives him the vajra (thunderbolt) scholars have been in too great a hurry to interpret him as a god of the hurricane or the storm. Rudra does not share in the sacrifice of Soma which extends to all Devas - he belongs to another category. He is a formidable archer, whose shafts despatch men and beasts to the next world. The accuracy of his aim is praised by begging him to shoot at other places and not at the house of the suppliant. Once they are hit by him men and animals die of sickness. So this savage god is invoked as a doctor and a veterinary surgeon, on whom every cure depends. He dwells in the mountains, and thus his rule extends to heaven and the air as well as to earth. The gods are as afraid of him as mortals are. One day when Prajapati committed incest with his own daughter Ushas who to escape him had changed into a gazelle, Rudra saw it as a mortal sin. In terror Prajapati called out: 'Don't shoot at me - I'll make you Lord of all animals!' Henceforth Rudra is named Pasupati, Lord of animals. But he shot all the same, and then wept to think that his shaft had struck the demiurge himself. The Maruts are the sons of Rudra and Prisni (goddess of the dark season) and, as Hillebrandt has pointed out, seem to have been dead souls before they became the genii of wind and storm. In the most ancient texts they are 'Rudras', copies of the god of the dead, but when Rudra became a heavenly being they dropped the name and became gods of the atmosphere. They are depicted as hustling the clouds, shaking mountains and wrecking forests. These energetic Rudras only become more gentle in order to please Rodasi, Rudra's wife, who likes to accompany them in her chariot. Origins of Siva and Vishnu This archaic popular god Rudra is the source of the god Siva who becomes of the first importance after the Vedic age - like Vishnu - in the religion of the masses. As we have seen, Siva also bore the title of prince of demons, Bhudapati. His name means 'the favorable' or 'the benevolent' and was meant to propitiate a dangerous deity who breathes pestilence and death. The god is essentially destructive but was endowed with benevolence by the piety of his worshippers who dreaded his dangerous manifestations. But his malevolent vocation brought round him all the atrocious and horrible deities revered by the Dravidians. Once presented as the wives of Siva these ogresses were consecrated by Hinduism - Uma, Durga and Parvati are three aspects of the same goddess. The name Tryambaka applied to Rudra already means the god accompanied by the three mother-goddesses, amba, ambika. The cult of Vishnu has some frail links with Vedic mythology. He there appears as a solar god who traverses the three worlds in three steps. They are heaven, air, and earth, and he prefers to live in heaven. He is associated with Indra as conqueror of the dark Vritra, and there is no reason for surprise at this since Indra is the god of the warrior aristocracy and the sun was an emblem of royalty. Here we come again on the Maruts, the acolytes of Vishnu. We note that in his multiple forms this god, quite unlike. Siva, was the object of pious devotion and tenderly affectionate worship. Gandharvas Apsaras The Gandharvas, the familiar spirits of the Indo-Europeans, belong to folklore. They are men-horses which the rites bring into masquerades Like Carnival, which shows them in their generative function. The part they play in the fecundity of Nature is conjoined with that attributed to them by abstract reflection - according to which that part of the soul which moves on from life to life is called 'gandharva'. The Gandharvas play heavenly music and jealously look after the Soma. They are the licentious mates of the Apsaras, nymphs who were first aquatic and then rustic, and in the first period of Brahmanism were supposed to dwell in figtrees and banana-plants. The Vedic Apsara, Urvasi, gave rise to a legend which suggests the story of Psyche. One day king Pururavas was hunting in the Himalayas and heard calls for help. Two Apsaras, playing among the flowers in a wood, were being carried off by demons. He was fortunate enough to be able to rescue them. Pururavas besought one of them, Urvasi, to respond to his love, and she consented on condition that she never saw her husband undressed. They lived together a long time and Urvasi hoped she was with child. However, the Gandharvas, who are the customary friends and companions of the Apsaras, regretted her absence and thought of a stratagem. Urvasi had two little lambs she always kept near her, and tied to her bed at night. Pururavas was laid beside her one night and the Gandharvas stole one of the lambs. 'Ah!' exclaimed Urvasi, 'they have taken my lamb as if there was not a man and a hero lying beside me!' Shortly afterwards 344 — INDIAN MYTHOLOGY they stole the second lamb, and she made exactly the same lament. Pururavas thought: 'While I am here shall it be said there is no hero?' And without troubling to dress he leaped up to pursue the thieves. Then the Gandharvas filled the sky with flashes of lightning, and Urvasi saw her husband as clearly as in daylight. And she disappeared. In despair the king sought throughout the land to find his beloved. At last he came to a lake where a flock of swans were swimming. They were Apsaras, and Urvasi was among them. Urvasi revealed herself, and Pururavas besought her to return with him and to grant him at least a moment's conversation. But Urvasi replied: 'What have I to say to you? I left you like the first dawn. Return home, Pururavas. I am like the wind, and hard to capture. You broke the pact which bound us. Return to your home, for it is hard to conquer me.' But seeing Pururavas' despair the Apsara at last allowed herself to be softened. 'Come back on the last day of the year,' she said. 'Then you can spend the night with me, and your son will have been born.' Pururavas returned on the last night of the year. The Gandharvas took him into a golden palace, and sent Urvasi to him. She said: 'In the morning the Gandharvas will grant you a boon. What will you choose?' 'Choose for me,' said Pururavas. 'Then say to them, "I want to become one of you." ' Next morning he made this wish. 'But,' said the Gandharvas, 'nowhere on earth does there burn the sacred fire which can make a man like unto us.' They gave him a dish containing fire, saying: 'You will make the sacrifices with this fire, and thus you will become a Gandharva like us.' Pururavas took the fire and returned home, bringing his son with him. But having left the fire for a moment he found it had disappeared. At the place where Pururavas had left the fire rose the tree Asvattha, and where he had left the dish containing the fire stood the tree Sami. He asked the advice of the Gandharvas. 'First cut the wood of the Sami tree, and then make a slim wand with the wood of the tree Asvattha. By turning one against the other you will make fire, the same fire you received from us.' In this way Pururavas learned how to make fire, and having cast his offerings into it, he became a Gandharva, and dwelt with Urvasi ever after. ABSTRACT MYTHOLOGY OF THE BRAHMANAS The abstractions of the latest collections of hymns opened the way for priestly scholasticism. The Vedas mentioned Visvakarma as the universal agent, Prajapati as the master of living things, Bri-haspati as the master of the formula, Sraddha as faith. Brahmanas and Upanishads were to equate Prajapati and Brihaspati either with religious forces like the brahman, or with metaphysical notions like theatman, or with ancient mythological figures like the Purusha. Brahman, a neuter term, is much older than the masculine name of the god Brahma and designates the essence of the Brahman caste, just as Kshatram designates the essence of the Kshatriya caste. Every existence, all knowledge depend on the brahman, as the keystone of the whole social order is the Brahman caste. Brahman is also the sacred syllable Om, the eternal soul which penetrates the whole universe and is its cause. Brahma and Sarasvati. Brahma, a masculine term, is the first person of the Hindu Trinity. He is essentially a creative god, the father of gods and men. 'This (world) was darkness, unknowable, without form, beyond reason and perception, as if utterly asleep. Then the august and self-existent Being, he who never unfolded, having unfolded this (universe) under the form of the great elements and others, having shown his energy, appeared to scatter the shades of darkness. This (Being) whom only the spirit can perceive, subtle, without distinct parts, eternal, including in himself all creatures, incomprehensible, appeared spontaneously. 'Wishing to draw different creatures from his body, he first by thought produced the waters and deposited his seed in them. This (seed) became a golden egg as brilliant as the sun, in which he himself was bom (under the form of) Brahma, the first father of all worlds. The waters are called Naras, they are the daughters of Nara; and since they were his first dwelling-place (ayana) he took the name Narayana. 'From this (first) cause, indistinct, eternal, including in itself being and not-being, came the Male, known in the world by the name of Brahma. 'In this egg the blessed one remained a whole year, then of himself, by the effort of his thought only, he divided the egg into two. 'From the two halves he made heaven and earth, and between them the air and the eight cardinal points and the eternal abode of the waters. 'From himself he drew the Spirit, including in itself being and not-being, and from the Spirit he drew the feeling of self which is conscious of personality and is master. 'And also the great (principle) the Soul, and all objects which possess the three qualities, and successively the five organs of the senses which perceive material things.' (LawsofManu, chap. I, v. 5.) The god Brahma is depicted with four faces (caturanana), dressed in a white garment, riding on a swan, sometimes a peacock, or else seated on a lotus growing from Vishnu's navel. He holds varying objects in his four hands - the four Vedas, the disk, the alms dish, or the sacrificial spoon. Sarasvati, his wife, is the goddess of music, wisdom, and knowledge, the mother of the Vedas. It was she who invented the de-vanagari alphabet, Sanskrit. She is depicted as a beautiful young woman with four arms. With one of her right hands she holds out a flower to her husband, for she is always beside him: with the other she holds a book of palm leaves, showing her love oflearning. One of her left hands holds a garland and the other a little drum. At other times she is seated on a lotus, with only two arms and playing on the vinu. Her name contains an allusion to a river, which has led to the inference that originally she was a goddess of the waters. A legend explains Brahma's four faces, the birth of Sarasvati, and the creation of the world. Brahma first formed a woman from his own immaculate substance, and she was known as Satarupa, Sarasvati, Savitri, Gayatri or Brahmani. When he saw this lovely girl emerge from his own body Brahma fell in love with her. Satarupa moved to his right to avoid his gaze, but a head immediately sprang up from the god. And when Satarupa turned to the left and then behind him, two new heads emerged. She darted towards heaven, and a fifth head was formed. Brahma then said to his daughter. 'Let us beget all kinds of living things, men. Suras, Asuras.' Hearing these words Satarupa returned to earth, Brahma wedded her and they retired to a secret place where they remained together for a hundred (divine) years. At that time Manu was born - he is also named Svayambhuva and Viraj. Brahma's fifth head was eventually burned up by the fire of Siva's third eye. Atman, the self, oneself (reflexive pronoun), designates what is manifested in the fact of consciousness as being the thinking principle. The word derives from an Indo-European root meaning 'to breathe' - in India as in Europe 'spirit' takes its name from breathing. Purusha, the Male, in the same texts and before that in the tenth book of Hymns is another name for the absolute Spirit. Here the continuity of the myth in the philosophy appears still more obvious. What was to become the Spirit was first of all cosmic Man, whose different limbs formed each part of the world, and whose personality is at once the sacrificer and the victim, the sacrifice (yajna) being considered as reality itself. Priests and Mythical Heroes. Several groups of mythical figures were conceived both as collective beings and as being summarised in a type-character, the centre of a cycle of legends. The social nature of these beings comes out clearly. Every Indian tradition in the first historical epochs is a matter of kula, of lineage, either family descent or religious association, or better still both together. These are the races of Rishis who preserved and transmitted the Vedic revelation, supposedly 'seen' by them, though in reality slowly elaborated by the poets, the influential ancestors of the Brahman caste. The Atharvans (Iranian athravans) in ancient Aryan antiquity were priests of fire. Atharvan (in the singular) is a prototype of the priest, who produced Agni, fire by friction, and instituted the system of sacrifices. He lives with the gods in heaven. His son Dad-hyanc also lights Agni. His affinity with Soma gave rise to some obscure myths, which are the expression of his sacerdotal essence. The Angiras are Rishis, sons of the gods, and are supposed to descend from a first Angira. They played the part of fathers to humanity. They too discovered Agni in wood, and presided over sacrifice, which earned them immortality as well as the friendship of Indra. While the Angiris, true 'angeloi', performed - like angels - the function of intermediaries between gods and men, there are other beings which are theoretically entirely human, the Manus. We are told that Agni dwells with them, and the reason is that Manu, the first of the race, was also the founder of sacrifices. Manu was not only the first to offer sacrifices, he was the first man, the ancestor of humanity. He derived from Vivasvat, the rising Sun, like Yama, the first of the dead. Manu reigns over the living, Yama over the Manes. A part similar to that of Noah is attributed to Manu, who during a deluge was saved by a miraculous fish which later on came to be considered as an avatar of Vishnu. It seems very likely that the Semitic fable was the origin of this cycle of legends. In later times when sacrifice did not include the whole of human activity, Manu was credited with the part of legislator, and his name was attached to the most famous code of Brahman law. Yama, judge of men and king of the invisible world, was born from Vivasvat, the Sun, and from Saranya, the daughter of Tvashtar. He was born before his mother grew weary of the glitter of her shining husband. He and his twin sister, Yami, made up the original couple from whom humanity is derived. Max Muller thought they meant Day and Night, which explains why they are inseparable and yet can never unite. Yami begged Yama to be her husband but the brother repelled her advances, saying that those who preach virtue should give the example of practising it. As he was the first of all beings to die, Yama is the guide to every- 346 — INDIAN MYTHOLOGY one who adventures into the next world. He reigns there below, and inhabits a secret sanctuary of heaven bathed in supernatural light. In his kingdom, friend is restored to friend, the wife to the husband, children to their parents, and all live happy, protected from the ills of earthly existence. In this, the third, stage of heaven the Manes or Fathers (pitri) as well as the gods who come there, drink a Soma which delivers them from a second death. Two savage dogs guard the entrance. We can now understand the epithets applied to Yama Vai-vasvata, son of Vivasvat; Kala, the weather; Dharmaraja, king of virtue; Pitripati, lord of the Fathers; Sraddhadeva, god of funeral ceremonies; Antaka, he who ends life; Kritanta, with the same meaning; Samana, the leveller; Samavurti, the impartial judge; Dandadhara, carrier of the stick, the punisher. It is hard to touch Yama when at the appointed hour he comes to earth to seek his victim. Yet the sweet and beautiful Savitri, wife of Satyavat, by dint of a stubborn conjugal tenderness persuaded the god of death to spare her husband. As Yama carried off Satya-vat's soul, Savitri followed his steps until at last the god was touched by such fidelity and promised to grant her wishes provided she would not ask him to bring her husband back to life. Then give me,' she said, 'a hundred strong sons born of Satyavat to carry on our stock.' Bound by his promise Yama had to bring the dead man to life. Matarisvan: Bhrigus. Those mythical wise men, the earliest human beings, have transmitted to the most distant posterity the most precious of all knowledge - the technique of sacrificing in fire. The man who captured the thunderbolt in heaven, and gave to mortals the secret of the fiery element was Matarisvan. We must also mention the Bhrigus, the 'shining ones', the name of a race destined to kindle and maintain Agni in human cults. The first bearer of this name designates one of the ten patriarchs instituted by Manu. A legend shows what authority these primitive men, in their capacity as possessors of the sacrificial knowledge, could exert over the most illustrious of the immortals. Certain wise men could not decide which of the three gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, was most deserving of the Brahmans' worship; and Bhrigu was deputed to test the character of these gods. In approaching Brahma he intentionally omitted one of the signs which are due to him - the god gave Bhrigu a reprimand, but accepted his apologies and forgave him. Bhrigu then entered the dwelling of Siva and behaved in the same way. He would have been consumed to ashes by the angry god if he had not soothed him down with soft and humble words. Then he went to Vishnu who was lying down asleep, and woke him up with a kick in the chest. Far from getting into a rage the god asked if he had hurt himself and gently massaged his foot. 'Here is the greatest of the gods,' said Bhrigu. 'He surpasses the others by the most powerful weapons, kindness and generosity.' COSMOGONY The Vedas look upon the worlds - heaven, air, earth - sometimes as being constructed like a work of art, and sometimes as having derived from an organic development. Book X of the Hymns bridges the transition between the Vedic myths and the philosophical speculations of the Brahmans. Before being and not-being there was a dark and watery chaos. Then a germ of life gifted with unity came to life by developing a sort of spontaneous heat, the 'tapas', which was at one and the same time heating, sweat and ascetic fervour. This principle felt and afterwards manifested the need to beget. (X, 129.). In another explanation there was a primordial giant, a cosmic man, Purusha (the Male). The different parts of the world are his limbs, and in his unity this individual includes the first sacrificer and the first victim. (X, 90). In later metaphysics the term 'purusha' came to mean the spiritual principle. In the work of creation there intervenes, with different meanings according to different traditions, the golden egg, the 'hiranyagarbha'. Produced by the primordial waters or brought into the world by Prajapati, this embryo gave birth to the supreme god, for instance the Brahman (Satapaiha Brahmana, VI, 1, 1, 10). Tn this egg were the continents, the oceans, the mountains, the planets and the divisions of the universe, the gods, the demons and humanity. They say Brahma was born, which is a familiar way of saying that he manifested himself.' (Vishnu-purana.) At the end of a thousand years the egg opened, and Brahma who emerged from it meditated and started the work of creation. Seeing that the earth was submerged under the waters he assumed the aspect of a wild boar, dived, and lifted it up on his tusks. At this period the old Vedic divinities were relegated to an inferior rank, even Varuna and Indra who, once the essential elements of the world had been created, had contributed to the establishment of its dimensions. Brahmanism thus preserves the ancient Vedic belief, according to which the gods maintain, without instituting, the fundamental order of things. ESCHATOLOGY According to the Rig-Veda, the dead are either buried or cremated. Cremation rapidly spread and was considered the normal way of attaining a definite dwelling place in the next world, in the sun or in the stars. Later on all kinds of distinctions occurred. Only the spiritual principle, asu or manas, went to the sun, carried there by Agni. According to the Satapatha Brahmana there are two paths for the just - to the Fathers (pitri) and to the sun. while for the evil another leads to hell, naraka. In the Vedas the kingdom of Yama was a paradise for the good, but in the Puranas it is also a place of expiation for the wicked. According to the Upanishads we must distinguish between the journey to Brahma, the reward of perfect knowledge, which attains an abiding place from which there is no return, and the journey to heaven where after enjoying the reward deserved the soul returns to be reborn here below. Thus we find a distinction which takes on the greatest importance in the faith of the Buddhists - on the one hand transmigration (samsara) without end, the normal condition of existence, and on the other hand the possibility of getting free for ever from this transmigration, that is to reach nirvana, for those who have completely understood the structure of things. Heaven is a place where we possess the same goods as on earth, but without risking the troubles of earthly existence. One is provided with a glorious body. The idea of hell which may be discerned however in the Athervabeda became general at a later date. It has not a widely Indo-European character like the idea of a dwelling of the blessed in heavenly light. THE HERETICAL DHARMAS JAINISM We call Jainism and Buddhism 'heretical' because these two religions, which began to spread through the area between the Himalayas and the Ganges in the 7th and 6th centuries before our era, threw off the Vedic traditioa They were far less concerned with giving mankind power over Nature than in freeing it from what they considered the basis of existence, the law of transmigration (samsara). Thus they are doctrines of salvation. Their propaganda does not lay claim to revelation or to some early authority. It limits itself to showing how a great man of wisdom found the path of deliverance for himself and for others, although he was wholly human. Consequently, at any rate at first, they contain no dogma, and no rites, but simply a law and an example. Their mythology includes no theology, and is limited to a biography and moral exhortation. But the miraculous very soon crept into these alleged biographies, and the Churches by many popular legends multiplied their subjects almost to infinity. On the other hand, the moral mission very soon became involved in metaphysics, which in turn gave rise to unforeseen gods and myths. For these reasons, although theoretically all mythology is absent from these doctrines, there was an immense efflorescence of legends sprouting from the stem of both these heresies, especially from the Buddhist stem. The Tirthamkaras. The assumption of Jainism, as of Buddhism, is the proposition that a man at grips with the normal conditions of existence is carried away by a sort of current, in which he will most likely succumb, and where he will inevitably be the victim of suffering and want. This strange conception, which their propaganda soon imposed on all India, including that of the Brahmans, derives from the fact that these heresies look upon existence as the result of action - every being is what he has made himself, and will become what he deserves to become according to the kind and quality of his actions. Death cannot annihilate the individual existence, because after it, retribution for things done - whether in the shape of reward or punishment - must be endured. This retribution involves fresh actions which in turn require new destinies, and so ad infinitum. Heavens and hells merely designate relative and temporary conditions. It would be madness to hope to reach salvation through the gods. This law of transmigration of souls which brought even orthodox eschatology into confusion, seemed an endless servitude and pain to Indian consciences, which felt crushed by it. Henceforth every species of religious ingenuity and metaphysics strove to discover a means whereby the individual might escape this seemingly inevitable slavery. To escape from ignorance and want - that is the attainment of nirvana. Every man who has 'found a ford' across the swirling, catastrophic current of the samsara is called Tirthamkara. Such was the Jina, the initiator of Jainism, and such the Buddha, initiator of Buddhism. Both traversed the current by a clear intuition of the conditions of human misery reached after practising a stern asceticism. To what extent the biography of a sage may be transformed by legend and thereby incorporated into mythology may be learned from M. A. Guerinot's La Religion Djaina, 1926. Humanity goes through, alternating phases of progress and regression, and had reached an epoch when human suffering was continually on the increase. The Jina or Mahavira (Great Man) decided to leave his heavenly abode to save humanity. 'He took the form of an embryo in the womb of Devananda, wife of the Brahman Rishabhadatta who lived at Kundapura. That night as Devananda was in bed and half asleep she saw in her dreams fourteen apparitions of favourable omen - an elephant, a bull, a lion, the goddess Sri, a garland, the moon, the sun, a standard, a valuable vase, a lake of lotuses, the ocean, a heavenly dwelling, a heap of jewels, and finally a flame. Rishabhadatta was delighted. He perceived that a son would be born to him who would become skilled in the learning of the Brahmans. 'Now, Sakra, the king of the gods in heaven.. .thought it would be preferable to transfer the embryo of Mahavira from Devananda's womb to that of Trisala, the wife of the kshatriya Siddhartha. . . He called to him the leader of the heavenly infantry, Harinagamesi (the Man-with-the-antelope's-head) and ordered him to carry out this transposition. . . When Harinagamesi had completed his mission he left Trisala resting on a magnificent bed in an ornate dwelling filled with flowers and perfumes. In her turn she dreamed of fourteen unparalleled manifestations. .. 'From that moment Siddhartha found good fortune was his friend. He increased his possession of gold, silver, land and corn. His army increased in numbers and in power, and his glory shone in every direction. He decided that when his son was born he should be given then name of Vardhamana, he-who-grows, he-who-develops.' (We now come to the birth of Mahavira.)'. .. That night the gods and goddesses came down from heaven to show their joy. The Demons rained flowers, fruits, gold and silver, pearls, diamonds, nectar, and sandal-wood on Siddhartha's palace.. . 'For thirty years (the Mahavira) lived a worldly life. He married Yasoda by whom he had a daughter, Riyadarsana. Then his parents, who followed the doctrines of Parsva, decided to leave this world. They lay down on a pile of grass and let themselves die of starvation. Vardhamana was now free from the vow he had made in his mother's womb, and decided to live after the fashion of wandering monks. He asked the permission of his brother and of the various authorities of the kingdom. Then he gave his wealth to the poor, and being thus freed from every bond became an ascetic. '.. .The gods came down from heaven, approached. . .and did him homage.. .A procession was formed, made up of men, gods and demons, all shouting: "Victory! Victory!" The sky was as lovely as a lake covered with open lotus-flowers, while earth and air echoed with melodious instruments...' Vardhamana spent twelve years in ascetic practices. Then once upon a time 'he sat down near an ancient temple under the tree Sala (teak), and remained motionless for two and a half days, fasting, and plunged in the deepest meditation. When he arose on the third day, enlightenment was complete. Vardhamana now possessed supreme and absolute knowledge; he was kevalin, omniscient. . .the perfect wise man, one of the blessed, an arhat: in short a Jina, a hero who had overcome evil and misery. '.. .The gods were present (thirty years later, after he had spent that time in preaching) when he entered nirvana and became liberated, mukta, perfect, siddha.' To sum up - we have a miraculous person vowed from all eternity to the salvation of the world, more than a god, since like men all the gods are mere supernumeraries compared with him, a discoverer, and a preacher of universal deliverance, the founder of a community. The Jain Church,, made up of laymen led by monks and nuns, followed the master in propagating the Law. The real story was more modest, but with a religious genius of this type legend may be truer than historical reality. Other Tirthamkaras. The transposing of a human biography into terms of dogmatic myth is not solely a matter of adding the supernatural to the personality of the religious founder. It appears in the endless multiplication of his personality into abstract types which mythology strives to make concrete. There are ten regions of the universe, in each of which arise twenty-four Tirthamkaras in each of the three ages, past, present and future. Thus we obtain seven hundred and twenty saviours of the world, of whom seven hundred and nineteen are pale reflections of the Jina. In this way a stylised convention was formed from the real situation, wherein the Jina was preceded by the sect of the Nirgranthas, whose master was Parsva, practisers of austerity to the point of advocating suicide by starvation; but which also provided for a series of patriarchs who kept alive the tradition of the founder in the community. In the book by Guerinot already quoted will be found the description of twenty-four Tirthamkaras in that part of the world where India is situated, during the present epoch. Each one is defined by certain characteristics - such-and-such proportions of the body, such a colour, such-and-such symbols; such-and-such acolyte in human form, a yaksha or a yakshini; such-and-such a posture, of special significance from the position of the hands and legs, etc. To each one a special cult is appropriated. BUDDHISM Everything we have just described in Jainism is to be found under other aspects in Buddhism, which is indeed Jainism's younger brother. Theoretically the sect should have limited its activity to moral reform, the institution of a law or dharma, which in humble believers would lead to faith, and in saints to nirvana. But as a matter of fact, popular superstition and fable immediately imposed on it an exuberant mythology which completely altered the simplicity of the dogma. Just as in Europe Christianity followed the pagan cults which were transformed into hagiographies, so a whole popular religion soaked into the myths of Buddhism - for instance, the traditional agricultural rites at each season of the year. Such was the myth of Gavampati, the god of drought and wind, who was immolated to bring rain, of which traces may still be found in most Buddhist festivals. (See J. Przyluski, Le Candle de Rajagriha, 1926 - 1928). LEGEND OF BUDDHA H. Oldenberg has compiled from Pali writings a 'reasonable' -we will not say too 'historical' - biography of the sage of the Sakyas (Sakyamuni) who was to become the Buddha, the Enlightened. On the other hand, E. Senart has composed an entirely legendary biography on the same subject, derived from Sanskrit documents. In the latter the institutor of Buddhism, far from dwindling to a sage of human essence, turns out to be an aspect of the solar god, Vishnu, who came down on earth to save our species. In point of fact all the classic episodes of his life are more or less touched with the miraculous. Buddha lived between about 563 and 483 B.C. in the north-east of India. The future Buddha or Bodhisattva had already passed through thousands of existences to prepare himself for his final transmigration. Before coming down to earth for the last time he visited the heaven of the Tushitas (abode of the blessed) and preached the Law to the gods. But one day he perceived that his hour had come and was incarnated in the family of a king of the Sakyas, Suddhodhana, who reigned in Kapilavastu, on the borders of Nepal. Birth and Childhood of Buddha. His conception was miraculous. Queen Maya, whose name literally means 'Illusions', warned by a presentiment, saw in a dream the Bodhisattva enter her womb in the shape of a lovely little elephant as white as snow. At this moment the whole universe showed its joy by miracles- musical instruments played without being touched, rivers stopped flowing to contemplate the Bodhisattva, trees and plants were covered with flowers and the lakes with lotuses. Next day Queen Maya's dream was interpreted by sixty-four Brahmans, who predicted the birth of a son destined to become either a universal emperor or a Buddha. When the time of his birth drew near the queen retired to the garden of Lumbini and there, standing and holding on to a branch of the tree Sala with her right hand, she gave birth to the Bodhisattva who came forth from her right side without causing her the least pain. The child was received by Brahma and the other gods, but he began at once to walk, and a lotus appeared as soon as his foot touched the earth. He took seven steps in the direction of the seven cardinal points, and thus took possession of the world. On the very same day were born Yasodhara Devi who was to be his wife, the horse Kantaka which he was to ride when he deserted his palace to seek supreme knowledge, his squire Chandaka, his friend and favourite disciple Ananda, and the Bo-tree beneath which he came to know Enlightenment. Five days after his birth the young prince received the name Siddhartha. On the seventh day Queen Maya died of joy, and was re-born among the gods, leaving her sister Mahaprajapati to take her place beside the young prince. The complete devotion of this adoptive mother has become legendary. A saintly old man from the Himalayas, the wealthy Asita, predicted the child's destiny and observed in him the eighty signs which are the pledges of a high religious vocation. When the child was taken by his parents to the temple, the statues of the gods bowed down before him. When the young prince was twelve years old the king called a council of Brahmans. They revealed to him that the prince would devote himself to asceticism if he beheld the spectacle of old age, sickness and death, and if he afterwards met a hermit. The king preferred that his son should be a universal sovereign rather than a hermit. The sumptuous palaces with their vast and beautiful gardens in which the young man was destined to live were therefore surrounded with a triple wall well-guarded. Mention of the words 'death' and 'grief was forbidden. Buddha's Marriage. A little later it occurred to the Rajah that the surest way to bind the prince to his kingdom was marriage. With a view to discovering a princess who would awaken his son's love the king collected magnificent jewels, and announced that on a given day Siddhartha would distribute them among the neighbouring princesses. When all the presents had been given out there arrived the last girl, Yasodhara, daughter of Mahanama, one of the ministers. She asked the prince if he had nothing for her, and he, having met her glance, took the valuable ring from his finger and gave it to her. The exchange of glances and the remarkable gift did not escape A Jain Tirthamkara. This seated, multi-headed figure represents Chandraprabha, the Lord of the Moon, the eighth Tirthamkara of the present age, who is said to have been born after his mother swallowed the moon. Each Tirthamkara has his (or, in one case, her) own characteristics and each is the object of a special cult, the places associated with them being the destination of pious pilgrimages. They are always depicted nude. Red sandstone. the king's attention, and he asked for the girl in marriage. However, the tradition of Sakyas compelled their princesses to take as husband only a true Kshatriya who could demonstrate his skill in all the accomplishments of his caste. Yasodhara's father had his doubts about Siddhartha, who had been brought up in the ease of court life. So a tournament was organised, and the prince came out first in all the competitions of riding, fencing and wrestling. Moreover, he was the only one who could string and shoot with the sacred bow of enormous size bequeathed by his ancestors. Princess Yasodhara was therefore married to him. The Vocation and the Great Departure. But very soon his divine vocation awoke in him. The music of the different instruments which sounded in his ears, the graceful movements of the girls dancing for the delight of his eyes, ceased to move his senses, and on the contrary showed him the vanity and instability of human life. 'The life of the creature passes like the mountain torrent and like the flash of lightning.' One day the prince called his equerry - he wanted to visit the town. The king ordered it to be swept and decorated and that every ugly or depressing sight should be hidden from his son. But these precautions were useless. As he rode through the streets the prince beheld a trembling, wrinkled old man, breathless with age, and bowed on his staff. With astonishment the young man learned that decrepitude is the inevitable fate of those who 'live out their lives'. When he got back to the palace he asked if there is any way of avoiding old age. Similarly, another day he came on someone with an incurable disease, and then a funeral procession, and thus came to know of suffering and death. Finally heaven threw in his way a begging ascetic, who told him that he had abandoned the world to pass beyond joy and suffering and attain peace of heart. These experiences and his meditations on them suggested to Siddhartha that he should abandon his present life and become an ascetic. He spoke of it to his father - 'O king, all things in this world are changing and transitory. Let me go forth alone, a begging monk.' The father was overwhelmed with grief at the thought of losing the son in whom lay all the hopes of his line. The guards round the walls were doubled, and there were continual amusements and pleasures devised in the palaces and gardens to prevent the young prince from thinking any more of leaving. At this time Yasodhara gave birth to the little Rahula. But even this did not hinder Bodhisattva from his mission. His decision became final when one sleepless night he beheld the spectacle of the harem - wan faces, bodies wilted in the involuntary relaxation of sleep and unconsciousness, an artless abandonment in the midst of disorder. 'Some dribbled, spattered with saliva; others ground their teeth; some snored and talked in their sleep. Some had their mouths wide open... It was like a foretaste of the horrors of the grave.' His mind was made up. But before leaving, Siddhartha wanted to look for the last time on his beautiful wife, Yasodhara. She was asleep, holding their new-born child in her arms. He wanted to kiss his son but was afraid he might waken the mother, so left them both, and lifting the curtain heavy with jewels went out into the fresh night with its countless stars, and mounted his beautiful horse Kantaka, accompanied by his equerry Chandaka. The gods in complicity sent sleep on the guards and lifted the horse's hoofs so that the noise of his shoes should waken nobody. At the gates of the town Siddhartha gave his horse to Chandaka and took farewell of these two friends urging them to console his father - and in mute farewell the horse licked his feet. With one sweep of his sword the prince cut off his hair, and threw it upwards where it was gathered by the gods. A little later, meeting a hunter, he exchanged his own splendid garments for the man's rags, and thus transformed made his way to a hermitage where the Brahmans received him as a disciple. Henceforth there was no more Siddhartha. He became the monk Gautama or, as he is still called, Sakyamuni, the ascetic of the Sakyas. He sought for wisdom as a disciple of the Yogis, living turn by turn in several hermitages, and especially with Arada Kalapa; but their doctrines did not teach him what he was seeking. He continued to wander, and at last stopped at Uruvilva on the bank of a very fine river. There he remained six years, practising dreadful austerities which reduced his body almost to nothing. But he realised that excessive macerations destroy a man's strength and instead of freeing the mind make it impotent. He had to get beyond asceticism, as he had got beyond worldly life. And the exhausted Bodhisattva, thin as a skeleton, accepted the bowl of rice offered him by a village girl, Sujata, who was moved to compassion by the ascetic's weakness. Then he bathed in the river. The five disciples who had shared his austerities abandoned him, much perturbed by his behaviour. The Enlightenment. Siddhartha then started for Bodhi-Gaya and the tree of Wisdom. As he passed through the forest such light emanated from his body that the kingfishers and other birds were attracted and flew in circles about him. The peacocks joined other animals of the forest to escort him. A Naga king and his wife came out of their underground dwelling to worship him. The devas hung standards from the trees to show him his way. And now the Bodhisattva reached the sacred fig-tree. It was the decisive hour of his career. He set a bundle of new-mown hay and sat down, uttering this vow: 'Here, on this seat, may my body dry up, may my skin and flesh waste away if I raise my body from this seat until! have attained the knowledge it is hard to attain during numerous kalpas!' And the earth quaked six times. Mara, the Buddhist demon, was warned of what was happening which would be the ruin of his power, and decided to interfere. He sent his three delicious daughters to tempt the Bodhisattva and divert him from his intentions. The girls sang and danced before his eyes. They were skilled in all the seductions of desire and pleasure, but the Bodhisattva remained as unmoved in his heart as in his countenance, as calm as a lotus on the smooth waters of a lake, as unmoved as the roots of the mountains. Mara's daughters retired defeated. Then the demon tried an attack, with an army of devils, horrible creatures, some with a thousand mouths, others pot-bellied and deformed, drinking blood or devouring snakes, uttering inhuman cries, spreading darkness, armed with spears, bows and maces. They surrounded the tree of Wisdom, threatening the Bodhisattva, but found themselves paralysed with their arms bound to their sides. Mara himself then made the supreme attempt. Riding on the clouds he hurled his terrible disk. But this weapon which could cut a mountain in two was impotent against the Bodhisattva. It was changed into a garland of flowers and hung suspended above his head. Before sunset Mara was beaten. And the motionless Bodhisattva remained in meditation under the sacred tree. Night came, and with it the dawn of the Enlightenment he sought rose slowly on his heart. First he knew the exact conditions of all living beings, and then the causes of their rebirth. Throughout the world and in all ages he beheld beings live, die, and transmigrate. He remembered his own previous existences, and grasped the inevitable links of causes and effects. As he meditated on human suffering he was enlightened as to its genesis and the means which allow it to be destroyed. When daylight appeared the Bodhisattva had attained perfect Enlightenment (bodhi) and had become a Buddha. The rays of light from his shining body reached the confines of space. For seven days Buddha remained in meditation, and then stayed near the tree for another four weeks. In the fifth week a terrible storm arose, but the Naga king, Musilinda, made a seat for him from the coils of his body and a canopy with his open hood, and so sheltered him from the storm and the flood. Henceforward two paths were open to Buddha. He could at once enter nirvana; or, renouncing for the time being his own deliverance, he could remain on earth to spread the good word. Mara urged him to leave the world, and Buddha himself realised that the doctrine is profound while men are not at all given to wisdom. Should he proclaim the Law to those who cannot understand it? For an instant third century A.D. he hesitated. But the gods united to implore him. Brahma in person came to beg him to preach his Law, and Buddha yielded to his wishes. The Preaching. To whom was he first to address his preaching? His thoughts turned to the five disciples who had abandoned him. He went to Benares, and found them again. Seeing him coming from afar they agreed together: 'Here comes that Sramana Gautama, the dissolute, the glutton, spoiled by luxury. . . We have nothing in common with him. We must not go to meet him with respect, nor stand up. . .We must give him no carpet, no prepared drink, nowhere to set his feet.' But Buddha understood their thoughts, and turned on them the strength of his love. As a leaf is swept away by a torrent, so the hermits were conquered by his omnipotent goodness, and rose up to do homage to him whose first disciples they became. So the first preaching took place at Benares, in the Gazelles' Park. According to the texts, the Buddha in his first sermon 'set in motion the wheel of the Law' (Dharmasakrapravartana). The Master's first message indicated at the outset the tone of primitive Buddhist doctrine - lucidity, moderation, charity. 'There are two extremes, O monks, which must be avoided. One is a life of pleasure, which is base and ignoble, contrary to the spirit, unworthy, vain. The other is a life of self-maceration, which is dreary, unworthy, vain. The Perfect, O monks, kept aloof from these two extremes and discovered the middle path which leads to rest, to knowledge, to enlightenment, and nirvana . . . Here, O monks, is the truth about pain. Birth, old age, sickness, death, separation from what we love, are pain. The origin of pain is the thirst for pleasure, the thirst for existence, the thirst for change. And here is the truth about the suppression of pain - the extinction of that thirst through the annihilation of desire.' And again: 'I am come to fill the ignorant with knowledge. Almsgiving, knowledge, and virtue are goods which cannot be wasted. To do a little good is better than to accomplish difficult works. . . The perfect man is nothing if he does not diffuse benefits on creatures, if he does not console the lonely. . . My doctrine is a doctrine of mercy. . .The way of salvation is open to all. . .Destroy your passions as an elephant throws down a hut built of reeds, but know that a man deceives himself if he thinks he can escape his passions by taking refuge in hermitages. The only remedy for evil is healthy reality.' Thus began a wandering mission which lasted forty-four years. Buddha went up and down the land, followed by his disciples, converting all who heard him. Many episodes of this long ministration have been popularised in art or in legends. We mention here a few of the principal ones. THE ANGRY ELEPHANT. Devadatta, Buddha's cousin, became his enemy. He made a royal elephant drunk, and turned it free in the streets at the moment when Buddha was going round to give alms. Smitten with terror the inhabitants fled, while the animal trampled on carriages and passers-by, and overthrew houses. Buddha's disciples implored him to leave, but he calmly kept on his way. But when a little girl carelessly crossing the road was almost killed by the raging elephant, Buddha spoke to it: 'Spare that innocent child - you were sent to attack me.' As soon as the elephant perceived Buddha, its rage was soothed as if by magic, and it came to kneel at the feet of the Blessed. THE GREAT MIRACLE OF SRAVASTI. King Prasenajit organised a contest between Buddha and the members of a heretical sect he wished to convert. Numerous miracles were performed by Sakyamuni during this battle of miraculous powers. Two remained especially famous. The first is known as the miracle of water and fire. 'Bhagavat (the Blessed) plunged into meditation so profound that as soon as his spirit entered into it, he disappeared from the place where he was seated and shot into the air towards the West, where he appeared in the four postures of decency - that is to say. he walked, he stood up, he sat down, he lay down. He then rose to the region of ligh;, and no sooner had he reached it than different lights spread from his body - blue, yellow, red and white lights. and others with the loveliest tints of crystal. He performed other miracles. Flames spread from the lower part of his body, while from the upper part fell a rain of cold water. He repeated in the South what he had done in the West and again in the four points of space.' In the second episode Buddha is seen seated on a large golden lotus with a diamond stem formed by the Naga kings, with Brahma to his right and Indra to his left. Through the prestige of his omnipotence Buddha filled the whole sky with a countless number of similar lotuses, and in each of them was a Buddha similar to himself. CONVERSION OF BUDDHA'S FAMILY. Buddha successively converted to his doctrine his father king Suddhodhana, his son Rahula, his cousin Ananda (who became his favourite disciple), his wife, and his adoptive mother, the good Mahaprajapati. Buddha ascended into heaven where he was greeted by his mother and the gods, who asked him to teach them the Law. At the end of three months this mission was ended, and the Blessed one returned to the earth by a ladder of gold and silver, with rungs of coral, ruby and emerald. And the gods escorted him. The conversion of Nanda. Buddha's half-brother, was more difficult, and introduces a very human note, both poignant and comic. The young man had just married the prettiest girl in the district. The Blessed one came to the door. Nanda filled his bowl with alms, but Buddha refused to take it and go away. Nanda followed him, holding out the bowl, but received not a word or a gesture in reply. They came to the hermitage, and the mysterious, smiling Buddha caused his brother's head to be shaved, and forced him to put off his sumptuous clothes and dress in a monk's gown. Poor Nanda submitted, but he was continually haunted by the charming memory of his young wife. One day he tried to run away, but mysterious powers prevented his escape. Sakyamuni took him on to a hill, where they saw a blind old monkey. 'Is your wife as beautiful as that monkey?' said Buddha to Nanda. Nanda's indignation was not soothed down until the Blessed carried him to the heaven of the thirty-three gods and into a magnificent palace inhabited by divine nymphs of incomparable beauty. Obviously his wife was a mere monkey compared with them. The nymphs revealed to him that after his death he was destined to become their lord and master. On their return to the monastery Nanda became the most zealous of disciples, in the hope of being re-born in the heaven of the thirty-three gods. But a little later Buddha took him to hell, and showed him a vat of boiling water in which he would fall after his heavenly existence, in order to expiate his sensual desires. These successive visions led Nanda to meditate the doctrine, and he became a saint. THE CHILD'S OFFERING. A little child wanted to make Buddha an offering, but had nothing in the world. So he collected the dust, and joining his two open hands childishly offered it to the Blessed. He was touched by this gesture of faith, and smilingly accepted the gift. Later on this innocent child was re-born in the form of the great Indian emperor, Asoka. THE MONKEY'S OFFERING. A monkey offered Buddha a bowl of honey. Delighted to see his gift accepted, the monkey cut a caper, fell, and was killed. He was immediately re-born as the son of a Brahman. Buddha's Death. At the age of eighty Buddha felt he had grown old. He visited all the communities he had founded, set them in order, and prepared for his end. He died at Kusinagara after eating an indigestible meal with one of his disciples, who was a smith. He died peacefully beside the river Hiranyavati, in a grove where Ananda had prepared his bed. The trees about him were covered with flowers. The Gandharvas played heavenly music. The disciples surrounded the dying man, and some wept despite their Master's exhortations. 'O disciples, everything created must perish. A man must separate from everything he has loved. Say not, we no longer have a Master . . .When I am gone the doctrine I have preached will be your Master. Watch and pray without respite.' After speaking these words, Buddha entered into meditation and then into ecstasy, and finally passed into nirvana. His body was burned on a funeral pyre which lighted itself, and was extinguished at the right moment by a miraculous rain. Relics of the Blessed one were preserved in the 'Stupas' which soon after were raised in India. This biography which alongside the miraculous contains traits of high morality, not only flowered on the surface with repeated types of the Buddha in divergent forms, but also as it were in depth -Sakyamuni having deserved to become Buddha because of all his former lives, which formed part of his personality. The Jatakas. Jatakas is the name given the stories relating to the lives of the Bodhisattva before the life in which he received the Bodhi, Enlightenment. Innumerable folklore stories have been incorporated in this literature. Many of the fables already current in India took on a Buddhist appearance. Moreover the Jatakas have a dogmatic value, since they show at work in reality that causal connection, which according to Buddhist philosophy forms the structure of things - every event in the present is to be explained by facts going farther and farther back into the past. This is the justification of the law of Kharma, by virtue of which every being, and the Bodhisattva in particular, becomes what he makes himself. Metaphysical dogma and popular belief thus coincide in the very idea of the Jataka. Here, for instance, is the tale of The Devotion of the King-Monkey (Mahakapi-Jataka). In those days the Bodhisattva was a king-monkey. One day when he was disporting himself in an orchard of mangoes along with eighty thousand of his subjects, the archers were ordered to surround the monkeys and to kill them. The poor creatures could only escape by crossing the Ganges. The king-monkey fastened to his waist a bamboo rope and tied the other end to the branch of a tree. He then crossed the river with one huge jump, but the rope was too short, and he could reach the bank only by clinging to a tree. On the living bridge thus formed the eighty thousand monkeys crossed and saved their lives. But Devadatta, Buddha's future cousin, was among the fugitives. Already the betrayer, he pretended to stumble, fell heavily on the back of the king-monkey and broke it as he passed. The heroic monkey was succoured by the king of Benares and made an edifying death, not without bestowing on his host some salutary advice for the government of his kingdom. One of the principal Buddhist virtues is endless compassion for all creatures. We find an example in the story of the king, the dove and the falcon (Sibi-Jataka). To test the integrity and charity of the king of the Sibis, Indra assumed the form of a falcon pursuing a dove, which itself is also a form of the metamorphosed god. The harried dove took refuge in the king's bosom. 'Fear nothing, beautiful bird, whose eyes are like the flowers of the asoka tree,' said the king. 'I save all living things which come to me for protection, even though I should lose my kingdom and my life itself.' But now the falcon spoke: 'This dove is my food. By what right do you deprive me of the prey I have conquered by my exertions? I am devoured by hunger. You have no right to intervene in the differences of the birds of the air. If you mean to protect the dove, think of me and how I shall die of hunger. If you refuse to yield me this bird you are cherishing, give me an equal weight of the flesh of your own body.' 'You are right,' said the king of the Sibis. 'Bring the scales.' He then cut off some of the flesh of his thigh and threw it into the scale, having put the dove on the other one. The queens, the ministers, and the attendants began to utter lamentations which rose up from the palace as the muttering of thunder from piled-up masses of cloud. The earth itself quaked at this act of integrity. But the king continued to cut the flesh from his legs, his arms and his breast. The scale was piled up in vain, for the dove grew heavier and heavier. So much so that the king, now reduced to a skeleton, decided he must give all himself, and entered the scale. Then the gods appeared, and heavenly music was heard. A shower of ambrosia drenched the king's body, and completely healed him. Flowers fell from heaven, the Gandharvas and Apsaras danced and sang. Indra resumed his divine form, and announced to the king of the Sibis that he would be re-incarnated in the body of the next Buddha. Multiplication of Buddhas. The most ancient Buddhism or Little Vehicle admits that since the Sakyamuni had shown the path to salvation, other sages might in their turn attain bodhi and nirvana, and thus become Buddhas. It particularly noticed the future Buddha, Maitreya. Making use of the opportunity to multiply the number of Saviours, the Great Vehicle, which came into existence about the beginning of the Christian era and dominated Indian philosophy during the first seven centuries of that era, created the notion of transcendent persons, positive Buddhist divinities, although they were still called Bodhisattvas or Buddhas. While the sage of the Sakyas represented the ideal of a slightly Brahman clan in the middle Ganges valley, the cults of the Great Vehicle came into existence on the borders of Iran in lands where there had been interpenetration of Hellenic, Persian and Indian influences. The Graeco-Syrian gnosis, the Iranian religion of light, and Vishnu-ite sectarianism played their part in it, and perhaps also to some extent the faith of the Semites and Manichaeism. We must not forget that most of the biographies of the Sakyamuni were composed under the influence of the Great Vehicle, and that they owe to it the metaphysics which abounds in them. The Artistic Representation of the Buddha Sakyamuni. A tangible proof of Western influence is shown by the artistic representation of the Buddha. Native art had always refrained from depicting the Blessed one's features, and he was symbolised by an empty throne or a solar wheel. When it was decided to give him plastic form, a Greek type was chosen. The Western sculptors dwelling in Bactriana represented him as Apollo. A. Foucher has demonstrated the continual evolution by imperceptible and gradual degrees from the most Hellenic Buddha to the most Japanese. The Indian elements of this iconography were imposed by the Master's biography. The Buddha must be a monk, the Bodhisattva a prince. Here and there the same royal and divine type (the gods were kings in heaven, the kings gods on earth) appeared, but when the Buddha was to be represented the type was divested of lay ensigns of power and of worldly wealth. Both have a lens-shaped mark between the eyebrows, urna, which symbolised a tuft of luminous and radiant hair, but the Buddha has a protuberance of the skull, ushnisha, which incorporates with his anatomy the shape of a turban bound round a knot of hair. The attitudes of the body, asanas, express the kind and quality of his meditation; the position of the hands, mudras, complete this expression or indicate the action accomplished. From Dipankara to Maitreya the Manushi-Buddhas. The most ancient precursor of Sakyamuni whose name has been preserved to us is Dipankara. During a former existence our Buddha presented him with flowers, and in return received from him an announcement, of his own mission. The legend of the distant predecessor reconciles as best it can the two etymologies of the name - dvipa an island, or dipa a lamp - by the idea of a luminous manifestation in the midst of the waters, a divinity protecting sailors, especially in the 'Southern Isles'. The epoch of the world to which we belong received six Blessed ones before the sage of the Sakyas - Vipasyin. Sikhin, Visvabhu, Krakuchanda, Kanakamuni, Ksyapa. An eighth is expected, Maitreya, who is still in the stage of a Bodhisattva. This pseudo-historical succession of Masters, who are given a role in the evolution of humanity, forms the series of'human' Buddhas, Manushi. The Dhyani-Buddhas. On the other hand the Buddhas of Meditation, Dhyani, are metaphysical essences, and yet iconography has much more frequently represented them in the creation of that section of Buddhism, the Great Vehicle, which conquered Tibet as well as the Far East. There are five of them: Vairocana, whose colour is white, whose attribute is the disk, and his steed a dragon. He must derive from some solar hero. He became extremely popular with the Japanese Shingon sect. Ratnasambhava is yellow, wears a jewel, and rides a lion. He reigns over the South. Amitabha, Infinite Light, or Amitayus, Infinite Duration, is red, holds a lotus, and is escorted by a peacock. He reigns over the West, where he presides over a marvellous paradise, Sukhavati. All who believe in him will be re-born before final deliverance. Amoghasiddhi is green, carries a double thunder-bolt, and is borne up by an eagle. His region is the North. Akshobhya is blue, provided with a thunder-bolt and rides on an elephant. He watches over the East. The Dhyani-Bodhisattvas: Avalokitesvara. From the meditation of the Dhyani-Buddhas emanate the Dhyani-Bodhisattvas: Saman- tabhadra, Vajrapani, Ratnapani, Avalokitesvara, Visvapani. Samantabhadra, one of the most constant intimates of Sakvamuni in the Mahayana texts, has the bearing of a god of action and symbolises happiness. He is green and rides an elephant. His cult is especially developed at Wo-meichen (Setzu-Zan) and in Nepal. Vajrapani, wieldcr of the thunder-bolt, appears in the Gandharva sculptures sometimes as a Zeus, sometimes an Eros, even as a Hercules, a Pan or a Dionysus. The representations show us the history of Vajrapani. He was first a yaksha, a faithful companion, a replica of Sakyamuni, and then becomes important in the Great Vehicle as a 'Bodhisattva of benign aspect or furious bearing', the ideal of the faithful and terror of the impious. (Foucher.) Avalokitesvara, the Lord gifted with complete Enlightenment, remained in this world for the salvation of creatures, and is at the head of the Merciful. Under the name of Padmapani he holds a pink lotus, and to show that he derives from Amitabha he bears an effigy of him bound up with his hair. No person in suffering appeals to him in vain. As he has plenty of work in this world of misery a 'thousand' arms are not too many for him. The Karunduw uha describes his charitable wanderings, whether he takes cooling drinks to the damned in hell, or converts the she-ogres (Rakshasi) of Ceylon, or preaches the Eaw to beings incarnated as insects or worms in the region of Benares. So although his normal residence is the paradise of Amitabha, his chosen dwelling is the world of suffering which he prefers to the peace of nirvana. China has transformed this Bodhisattva in a very curious way. To honour his capacity for love the Chinese have endowed him with the feminine aspect of the goddess Kuanyin (Kwannon) who, as she carries a child in her arms, has such a strange resemblance to the Virgin Mary and her divine son. In contrast to this very concrete image, India imagined this compassionate saviour as a cosmic being with innumerable forms: 'From his eyes were derived the sun and the moon, from his forehead Mahesvara, from his shoulders Brahma and other gods, from his heart Narayana, from his thighs Sarasvati, from his mouth the winds, from his feet the earth, from his belly Varuna. . . He is a lamp to the blind, a sunshade to those consumed by the heat of the sun, a stream for the thirsty; he takes away all fear from those who dread a disaster, he is a doctor to the sick, a father and mother to the unhappy (Karandavyuha, 14 and 18).' Mother! That was the shape in which he conquered the Far East. Other Bodhisattvas Manjusri, Maitreya, Kshitigarbha. Legend attributes a Chinese origin to the Bodhisattva Manjusri or Man-jughsha. At least in the time of I-tsing the Hindus considered him as living in China, and he was especially venerated in the monastery of Ou-tai-Chan (Changsa). His name is only a translation of the Sanskrit Pancasika or Pancasirsha, the mountain with five peaks, certainly Indian, where a certain Kumarabhua, whose surname was Manjusri, attained to sanctity. According to Sylvain Levi, Manju is the Cutch translation of Kumara. The Svayambhuprana makes this Bodhisattva the patron of grammatical science and wisdom. He is portrayed as yellow, seated on a blue lion with a red maw, in the posture of teaching, a blue lotus in his hand - often with a sword, the sword of knowledge, or a book. Maitreya, the Buddha of the future, still dwells in the heaven of Tushita whence the Sakyamuni of old descended. One of the latter's disciples, Kasyapa, having attained nirvana, dwells on the slope of mount Kukkutapada waiting for the moment when he will present the future Buddha with the robe of precedence most carefully preserved. Maitreya, who is represented as the colour of gold, is related at least by his name to Mitra, the solar god of the Iranians. Texts in Eastern Iranian studied by Ernest Leumann demonstrate the importance of the messianism of Maitreya in the southern part of Chinese Turkestan. Perhaps some historical character must be recognised as the origin of the cult of this bodhisattva - at least, such is the opinion of J. Takasuku and H. Ui, two Japanese Bud-dhologists' who attribute some famous works of Yogasara inspiration to a certain Maitreya. Kshitigarbha, very little honoured in India, but with effigies widely spread throughout central Asia, plays the part of an es-chatological god. He regulates and surveys the six paths (gati) which are taken by souls after they have been judged - destinies of men, asuras, demons, of gods, animals, and the starving damned. The paintings of Yueyen-Kwang show ten kings of hell gravitating about him. Here is reflected the mythical cosmography of Buddhism, which also appears by the admission of the four guards of the cardinal points, the Lokapalas, locked in their armour. This judgment, these judicial or police gods, are utterly in contradiction with the primitive Buddhist conception of Kharma, according to which every action in itself implied the just and necessary retribution, without any divine intervention. The development of the myth has carried us as far away from real Buddhism as from India proper. The overwhelming monotony of these figures is not unintentional. The infinite number of these effigies, mythically different but metaphysically equivalent, was meant to reassure the faith of the humble, by showing how numerous the elect were. On the other hand it reveals to him who can understand, the essential truth of the Great Vehicle - that as the Law does not differ from nirvana, and as all is emptiness, Buddha is reduced to an empty form. If any life, denounced of course as illusory, circulates through these abstractions, it was provided by popular devotion to the extent that it treats the Buddhas as gods. Buddhistic Hinduism. The popular cults forced their way even into the cold and lofty dogma of the Great Vehicle - there was a Buddhistic Hinduism as there had been a Brahmanic Hinduism. Hideous, grimacing, grotesque figures point to an inspiration entirely different from the serenity of the saints. Yamantaka, the companion of Manjusri, wore a necklace of skulls, like Siva. He possesses several terrifying faces, and waves a number of arms. Trailokya-vijaya has four heads and four threatening arms, and tramples on Siva's head. These two monsters demonstrate that a certain type of Buddhism tried to exceed the horror even of the Siva myths. Alongside terror we have the ridiculous - the god of wealth, Jambhala, outrageously fat, and holding a lemon and a mangosteen, an amusing parody of the Brahman god Kuvera. An unmistakable sign of Hinduism is the reappearance with scarcely any change of the old Dravidian she-ogres. Like Vishnu and Siva, the Buddhas had their saktis, who furnished mortals with knowledge, prajna, or compassion, karuna, while their quasi-husbands showed the path of salvation, upaya. Tara, the most revered, shared in the cult devoted to Avalokites-vara, at least in Tibetan Tantrism. She was born from his tears. When she is red, yellow, blue, she threatens; when white or green, she is gentle and loving - a double character present in Siva's wife. This sort of Bodhisattva of a feminine nature is among the Vid-yadevis or Matrikadevis, goddesses of knowledge, or mother-goddesses, among whom may be noted: Bhrikuti Tara, a special form of the preceding; Kurukulla, represented as reddish, seated in a cavern, has four arms, of which the upper two threaten, and the lower two soothe; Cunda - concerning whom the Tibetan Taranatha relates a fairy tale: 'Lucky for him was it that the son of the tree nymph and the Kshatriya chose her as patron, for with her help he slew the wicked queen whose bed every night was a grave for a new king of Bengal.' She has four or sixteen arms. 'Her kindly air contrasts with her threatening attributes. Thunder-bolt, disk, mace, sword, bow, arrow, axe, trident, etc. - nothing is absent from her arsenal; but for the worshipper who knows how to look, her first pair of hands is in the position of teaching, another in that of charity, while others hold the rosary, the golden lotus, and the flask of ambrosia; so that this strange divinity is as propitious to the good as she is terrible to the wicked' (Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique du II siecle, 144, 146); Marici, the ray of dawn, a Buddhist Ushas, with a frontal eye, is sometimes terrible with her three grimacing faces and ten threatening arms. Among the saktis of the Manushi-Buddhas is Sarasvati, the wife of Manjusri and goddess of teaching. On the summit of this feminine pantheon reigns Prajna, Knowledge, corresponding to the supreme masculine abstraction, Adibud-dha, original and fundamental essence of all Buddhas. As the antithesis to this serenity let us mention Hariti, the mother suckling five hundred demons. She is associated with Pancika, a genius of opulence - her wealth is her fecundity, probably a relic of ancient agricultural rites. This invasion of Buddhism by Tantrist mythology, attested by Tibetan Lamaism, illuminates a big historical problem with a very crude light. Let us not be surprised that Buddhism has disappeared from India, with the exception of Ceylon and Nepal - like the orthodoxy of Vedic tradition it has been absorbed by the sectarian religions. MYTHOLOGY OF HINDUISM We apply the word 'Hindu' to the population resulting from the mixture or propinquity of the different races of India; and the name 'Hinduism' is given to the social, religious, and mythological mixture produced by the interpenetration of the most divergent rites, beliefs and superstition. This syncretism occurred under the aegis of Brahmanism, because the Brahmans remained the most educated caste, destined to maintain the inheritance of Vedic tradition. But the history of Hinduism is that of the concessions which orthodoxy was forced to make to new or foreign beliefs and practices, since orthodoxy could only survive by giving its blessing to what it was unable to withstand. RELIGION OF VISHNU The Vishnu of Hinduism adds a large number of fantastic developments to the comparatively little personified Vishnu of the Vedic age, the principle of light 'penetrating', vich, the whole universe, which he crossed with three steps. The later epochs represented this god as dark blue, dressed in yellow, riding an eagle, Garuda, while his four arms carried a mace, a sea-shell, a disk and a lotus. The Vaikuntha heaven over which he reigns is made of gold and its palaces of precious stones. The crystal waters of the Ganges fall on the head of Druva and then on the seven Rishis, and so make their way to the sea. Vishnu is seated on white lotus flowers, having on his right his wife, the brilliant and perfumed Lakshmi, born from the churning of the sea and sprinkled with the Ganges by elephants with golden ewers, thus associating the ideal of love and beauty with the prestige of the supreme god. Here are some of the names or epithets of this first principle: Svayambhu who exists of himself, Ananta the infinite, Yajnesvara the lord of sacrifice, Hari the abducter who carries off souls to save them. Janarddana who captivates peoples' adoration, Mukunda the liberator, Madhava made of honey, Kesava the hairy whose hairs were the solar rays-, Narauana, the source and refuge of beings. The variety of these forms is explicable historically by the fusion of different gods and demi-gods into a single figure under the action of a particular sentiment, a king of piety quite unknown to primitive Brahmanism, and called by the Hindus Bhakti made up of confidence, love, and the gift of self to the divinity. The Avatars of Vishnu. In the intervals of successive creations, Vishnu sleeps on the cosmic waters, lying on the snake Sesha whose seven heads spread like a fan make a canopy for him. This slumber is not death but a state in which the god's virtuality slowly ripens to unfold again in another universe. These alternations of rest and activity, although each of them lasts for thousands of millions of centuries, are as regular and certain as an organic rhythm - India thinks of them as the god's in-breathing and out-breathing. To each cycle of creation there corresponds an 'avatar', literally 'a descent', of the god Vishnu. These avatars theoretically number ten, but the wealth of popular imagination has greatly increased the number. The lion avatar, Narasimha, has appeared in the story of Hiranyakasipu, and Vamana the dwarf in that of Bali. Avatar of the Fish, Matsya. This implies ancient traditions to do with a flood. One day when the wise Manu was making his ablutions he found in the hollow of his hand a tiny little fish, which begged him to allow it to live. So he put it in a jar, but next day it iviiiiiaLUie ironi me r^aipa^uiru, oujerai, iineenin ueniury t\.u. was so much bigger that he had to carry it to a lake. Soon the lake was too small. Throw me into the sea,' said the fish, 'and I shall be more comfortable.' Then he warned Manu of a coming deluge. He sent him a large ship, with orders to load it with two of every living species and the seeds of every plant, and then to go on board himself. Manu had only just carried out these orders when the ocean submerged everything, and nothing was to be seen but Vishnu in the form of a huge one-horned fish with golden scales. Manu moored his ship to the horn of the fish, using the large snake Vasuki as a rope. Thus mankind, the animals and the plants were saved from destruction. Avatar of the Wild Boar, Varahavatara. When the earth was submerged by the deluge it was captured by demons. Vishnu in the form of a wild boar dashed across heaven and dived into the waters, where he tracked down the earth by his sense of smell. He killed the demon who held it prisoner, and came up to the surface of the water, bringing with him the earth which he lifted from the abyss on his tusks. The sculptors represented the Varahavatara in the form of a giant with the head of a wild boar, holding in his arms the goddess of Earth. Avatar of the Turtle. This is connected with the episode of 'the churning of the sea', one of the most popular legends of Indian mythology. Long ago Indra, king of the gods, was cursed by a great rishi named Durvasas. Thereafter Indra and the three worlds began to lose their first vigour. Vishnu appeared smiling and said: 'I will give you back your power. This is what you must do. Take mount Mandara as a stick and the snake Vasuki as a rope and churn the sea of milk, and you will see it produces the liquid of immortality and other wonderful presents. But you must have the help of the demons. Make an alliance with them and tell them that you will share with them the fruits of your common labour. I shall myself take care that they don't get their share of ambrosia.' So the gods made an alliance with the Asuras, and having taken mount Mandara as the stick and the snake Vasuki as the rope, they began their work. By its violent motions the mountain did great damage to the inhabitants of the ocean, and the heat created by its rotation destroyed the animals and birds living on its slopes. In fact the whole mountain would have been destroyed if Indra had not sent heavy rains down from heaven, to quench the flames and comfort the inhabitants. But owing to its weight and rapid motion the mountain bored into the earth and threatened to break through it. Vishnu, again invoked, assumed the form of a gigantic turtle, got beneath the mountain, and became its pivot. The churning went on faster than ever. So great is the power of Vishnu, and so numerous the forms that he is able to assume, that even while he supported the mountain he was also present, though invisible, among the gods and demons hauling at the rope. His energy also sustained Vasuki, king of the snakes, while everyone saw him seated in glory on the peak of Mandara. The Snake suffered from this painful labour. While the gods pulled him by the tail and the demons by the head, torrents of venom escaped from his jaws and poured down on earth in a vast river which threatened to destrqy gods, demons, men and animals. In their distress they called upon Siva, and Vishnu joined in their entreaties. Siva heard them and drank the poison to save the world from destruction, but it burnt his throat, and his neck still bears a blue mark which gave him the name of 'Nilakantha', blue throat. At last the persevering efforts of gods and demons received their reward. First of all their eyes beheld Surabhi, the marvellous cow. mother and nurse of all living things. Then came Varuni goddess of wine, Parijata the tree of paradise, the delight of the nymphs of heaven, scenting the whole earth with the perfume of its flowers, and then all the Apsaras with their grace and enchanting beauty. Then appeared the Moon which Siva grasped to wear on his forehead, and Lakshimi, the goddess of fortune, Vishnu's joy, seated radiant on a wide-open lotus. The heavenly musicians and the great sages began to sing her praises. The sacred rivers asked her to bathe in their waters. The sea of milk gave her a crown of immortal flowers. The great sacred elephants who support the world poured on her the holy water of the Ganges from golden ewers. As she was Vishnu's wife she sat on his knees, and refused to look at the demons who coveted the goddess of prosperity. Among other products of the sea of milk must be mentioned Dhanvantari, doctor of the gods, and inventor of the Ayur-Vedic system of medicine; a miraculous horse, a sort of Pegasus; and a marvellous jewel which Vishnu placed on his breast. The doctor of the gods was the last to appear, holding in his hand the cup which contained the liquid of immortality. The furious and impatient Asuras snatched it from him and fled. But Vishnu assumed the form of a most lovely woman, fascinated them by the illusion, and while the demons were arguing with each other, he took the ambrosia and brought it back to the gods. When they had drunk of it they regained their vigour and drove away the Asuras. Krishna. Krishna is the most charming and human of Vishnu's incarnations. He was born at Mathura, between Delhi and Agra. His mother M i i was Devaki, a sister of king Kamsa, who killed all her children as soon as they were born, since it had been predicted that he would be assassinated by one of them. Krishna owed his life to a ruse of his parents, who exchanged him for the daughter of a poor cowherd, in order to hide him from his uncle's anger. Krishna therefore spent his youth among keepers of herds, in the company of his brother Balarama. Soon after his birth Krishna.was already full of vigour, and sometimes of malice, and started his series of mighty deeds. He overthrew a cart, pulled up two trees together by the roots, fought successfully with a big water snake, and helped his brother Balarama to destroy a dangerous demon. He played tricks on Indra himself. Once when the herdsmen were preparing to pay homage to the dispenser of rains, he advised them rather to honour the mountain which fed their herds, and the cattle who gave them milk. Krishna in this way appropriated to himself the cult devoted to Indra, for he appeared on the top of the mountain, saying: 'I am the mountain!' and took the first fruits of the offerings to himself. Indra was furious, and poured down cataracts of rain to drown the herdsmen and their cattle, but Krishna lifted the mountain and held it in the air with one finger, and thus protected his friends from the storm for seven days and nights. Indra was amazed, and came down from heaven with his wife Indrani, and they both begged his friendship for their son Arjuna. In time Krishna became an adolescent. One day some shepherdesses went bathing in the Yamuna, and hearing their bursts of laughter he came up softly and stole their clothes, hiding with them in a neighbouring tree. When the shepherdesses came out of the water and could not find their clothes on the bank they did not know where to turn, and their trouble was increased when they noticed Krishna in the tree looking and laughing at them. Going back into the water they begged him to have pity on them, but he would not return their clothes except on the condition that they came to look for them one by one, with their hands folded in the attitude of prayer. This incident is merely an introduction to many others like it. The herdsmen's wives and daughters, forgetting their customary reserve and modesty, left their work and their houses to follow Krishna into the forest, as soon as they heard the sound of his flute. The Bhagavata sometimes gently scolded them, but he also told them that through him they would obtain salvation. However Krishna is approached he gives liberation. Some knew and sought him as a son, some as a friend, some as a lover, or even as an enemy, but all received his blessing and deliverance. The shepherdesses in love with Krishna became so numerous that they could not all hold his hand when he danced with them, so he multiplied himself into many forms, and each girl had the illusion that she was holding Krishna's hand in hers. The erotic mysticism of the Hindu 'Song of Songs', the Gila-Govinda, was the delight of innumerable souls: 'Krishna enchanted the women by the pleasures he lavished on them. The contact of his limbs, soft and dark as a garland of lotus flowers, created amorous delight in them, while the women of the heifer-park kissed him as much as they desired. . . 'May those learned spirits who seek ecstasy in Vishnu derive from the song of Govinda the essence of love!" When he was adult Krishna left the herdsmen and returned to Mathura. He killed Kamsa and a certain number of other evil-doers. And then the Mahabharata allots him an important part in the famous war launched by the five sons of Pandu against their hundred cousins, the Kurus. Krishna was the friend and adviser of the Pandavas, and even became Arjuna's divine charioteer. Arjuna hesitated to take part in the war, deploring the useless slaughter. Why kill one's friends and relations? Krishna, however, reminds him that he belongs to the caste of the warriors. He cannot go to heaven if he displays such cowardice. Besides they only kill and are killed in appearance. In reality the soul is eternal. All those on the battlefield nave always existed and will never cease to exist. These remarks induce Arjuna to ask Krishna a number of questions, and their dialogue forms the splendid philosophical poem, the Bhaguvad-Giia. After many hard fights the war ends with the total destruction of both armies. There are four survivors of the Kurus, and seven of the Pandavas including the god Krishna. Soon after, Krishna himself accidentally dies, although he had foreseen his fate. Seated in the forest, in meditation, with his legs crossed, he exposed the soles of his feet. And the wise Durvasas had once cursed him in a moment of anger, saying that he would die from a wound in his foot. A hunter at a distance mistook Krishna for a deer he was following, and let fly a shaft which hit him in his one vulnerable place, the god's left heel. The hunter came up and was in despair at his mistake, but Krishna told him to fear nothing and not to grieve. These words of consolation were the last he spoke on this earth. Then, all radiant, he rose up into heaven, and the gods greeted him. Shadow then fell upon the earth. Rama. 'The hero created by Valmiki', says Sylvain Levi, 'still remains for contemporary India the most perfect model of humanity. Rama's peaceable courage, always at the service of virtue, his passionate devotion to duty, his fine delicate sensibility, his filial piety, his conjugal tenderness, the communion of his spirit with all Nature, are traits of eternal beauty which time can neither destroy Rama was the son of king Dasaratha of Ayodhya, but was forced to renounce the throne and to go into exile by the intrigues of his step-mother. When he is leaving he advises his wife, the beautiful Sita, to stay in the palace. The life of the forest would be too rough and dangerous for her: 'You hear the dreadful roaring oflions mingled with the rushing of cataracts. There is not enough water, you walk along very difficult paths tangled with lianas and undergrowth, you sleep on beds of dead leaves, or on the bare earth, night after night, when you are worn out with fatigue. You have to be satisfied with fallen fruits, and sometimes to fast to the verge of extinction. Snakes with winding coils, like the streams in which they hide, boldly traverse the paths. It is the realm of wind, darkness, hunger, and the great terrors.' But Sita insisted. She knew she had the right, for a wife's first duty is to share her husband's lot. 'Whether it is in asceticism, a hermitage, or in'heaven, I want nor weaken.' (From Abbe Roussel's translation of the Ramayana.) to be with you. as Skanda. Chola style bronze, sixteenth century A.D. 'I can never be tired walking after you. The reeds, the grass, the thorny bushes on the way will seem to me in your company as soft to the touch as a lawn or the skin of an antelope. 'The dust thrown up by the wind to cover me will seem, dear husband, rich sandal-wood powder. 'With you it is heaven, away from you hell. So it is. Be certain of it, O Rama, and be perfectly happy with me.' Rama let himself be moved, and Sita followed him into exile along with his brother Lakshmana. But Ravana, the king of the Rakshasas, desires Sita. He succeeds in drawing Rama away in pursuit of a magical gazelle, and carries off Sita by force in his aerial chariot. He keeps her a captive among his women in the kingdom of Lanka (Ceylon). Rama, wild with despair and grief, looks madly for his wife, and vows to annihilate her abductor. An eagle among his friends indicates the trail, and a whole nation of monkeys put themselves at his service. Hanuman, one of the monkeys, is agile enough to clear the wall by an immense leap, and brings the hero back news of Sita whom he has cheered. Rama is sure of winning, but how can he take his army over the sea? He decides to ask the help of Ocean. So, having formed a bed of the plant Kusa, Rama lay down on it, face to the East, and lifted his clasped hands to the sea, saying: The Ocean will yield, or I shall die.' Rama then remained there silent for three days with his spirit concentrated on the Ocean, but it made no answer. Then the hero became angry. He stood up, grasped his bow, tried to dry up the sea. He shot terrible arrows which pierced the waves, stirred up powerful storms and frightened the snakes and dolphins of the sea - and the gods shouted from heaven: 'Alas!' and 'Enough!' But Ocean did not appear. Then having threatened him Rama fitted to his bow-string an arrow tipped with a charm given by Brahma, and shot. Darkness fell on heaven and earth, all creatures were seized with terror, the mountains trembled, and the depths of the sea were violently troubled. Then Ocean himself emerged from the waters, as the sun rises over mount Meru. Wearing a crown and spangled with glittering gems he was followed by the great rivers, the Ganga, the Sindhu, and others. He came to Rama with clasped hands, saying: 'O Rama, you know that each element possesses its own qualities. Mine are to be without bottom and difficult to cross. Neither love nor fear can give me the power to stay the eternal movement of the waters. But you can cross me, thanks to a bridge which I promise to uphold firmly. Secure the help of Nala, the son of Visvakarma (the smith of the gods). He is full of energy and as skilful as his father.' Having spoken, Ocean returned beneath his waves. Thereupon, obeying Nala's orders, all the monkeys collected trees and rocks, carried them from the forest to the shore, and placed them on the sea. Some carried beams, some measured them, others rolled along enormous boulders. The rocks as they leaped into the sea made a noise like thunder. And at the end of five days a wide strong bridge was built. From a distance it looked on Ocean's head like the parting which divides the hair on a woman's head. Rama and Lakshmana then started to cross the bridge with the army of monkeys. Other monkeys came swimming, and still others bounded through the air. The noise of this army overbore that of the waves and of Ocean. Rama with his army soon reached the walls of Lanka, and a terrible battle began. It was at the expense of prodigies of valour that the hero's troops gradually overcame Ravana's. After purification, and singing the hymn to the Sun, Rama in person had to fight, for Ravana came to attack him. They were like two fiery lions. One by one Rama with his arrows cut down the monster's ten heads, but fresh ones always sprang up. He then took a weapon which Agastya had given him - its wings were moved by the wind, its point was made of sunlight and fire, and it was as heavy as the mountains Meru and Mandara. After blessing this shaft with Vedic 'mantras' (sacred formulas) Rama fitted it to his bow and shot it. The shaft flew straight to its aim, pierced Ravana's chest and then, covered with blood, returned humbly to the hero's quiver. Thus died the king of the Rakshasas. The gods rained down flowers on Rama's chariot, and sang hymns of praise, for the purpose which had caused Vishnu to assume human form was now attained. Rama at first refused to receive the liberated Sita, for he wished to prove to everyone that in spite of her sojourn with Ravana his wife had remained unsullied. In despair at this repudiation Sita longed only for death, and had a funeral pyre built. She mounted it, and approaching the fire with clasped hands exclaimed: 'As my heart was never taken from Rama, so you, O Fire, the universal witness, will never take from me your protection!' Then she bravely entered the flames. While all the onlookers were uttering cries and lamentations, the fire was seen to rise up holding on its knees Sita who looked radiant as the morning sun. They cried out that it was a miracle, and Rama opened his arms to the Irreproachable, saying: 'I knew Sita's virtue, but I wished it to be justified before all the people. Without this test they would have said that Dasarath's son has yielded to desire and despises the traditional laws. But now all will know that she is truly mine, as the rays of the sun belong to their source.' Rama then asked Indra to resurrect all his companions who had fallen on the battlefield, and then returned to Ayodhya, where he took in hand the government of the kingdom. To close this series of Vishnu's avatars, let us mention Kalkin who, like Maitreya the future Buddha, has not yet appeared. The Kalki-Purana tells us what to expect from his beneficent intervention when his hour arrives. He will close the iron age, and annihilate the wicked. He will appear in the form of a giant with a horse's head. When his work is finished he will be re-absorbed in Vishnu until creation starts again, this time with a development opposite to the degeneration we now witness. The elasticity of the 'avatar' system may be judged by the fact that Buddha himself was considered to be a form of Vishnu. Obviously it is an artificial interpretation, and yet contains a profound truth, since - as Senart has definitely proved - Sakyamuni belongs to the same solar myth which is implicit in all Vishnu's incarnations. RELIGION OF SIVA Vishnu is characterised by a tender devotion, and the religion of Siva is founded rather on asceticism. The god Siva is not a Bhagavat, but an Isvara, a Lord and Master. Although he wears the Brahman cord, he is the head of people without status like vampires and demons, as he is the head of those who have repudiated society, the ascetics. He is referred to by the same epithet as one of the Jam sects, 'digambara', naked 'clothed with space'. His chest is sometimes decked with a necklace of skulls. The question of his origin and his relations with the god Rudra have already been discussed (page 356). Hindu art represents Siva in many very different forms. In his anthropomorphic aspect he usually has four arms - the two upper hands hold a drum and a doe, and the two others respectively make the gestures of giving and of reassuring. His forehead is sometimes marked by three horizontal stripes, and in the centre is a third eye. The god is dressed in a tiger-skin, with a snake for throat ornament, another for the sacred cord, while still others are coiled round his arms as bracelets. His hair is either tangled or braided and often stands erect with the high knot of the ascetic, decorated with a crescent moon and a trident. Sometimes amid the god's hair one can see the fifth head of Brahma or the goddess Ganga (Ganges). These different attributes correspond to episodes in his legend. He rides on the bull Nandi. Siva's personality swarms with contrasts. He destroys like time itself, and is also merciful. He is indifferent to pleasures, yet everywhere worshipped as the principle of generation under the symbol of the lingam (phallus). His whole activity points to the conviction, common to both Hinduism and Buddhism, that the same principle must be at the origin of good and of evil, of wretchedness and of salvation. The philosophy of Sivaism is destructive of illusions, but leads neither to inaction nor to pessimism. On the contrary, its wisdom allows it to enter harmoniously into the great 'game', lila, of life, to take part in it by dancing with all one's heart and all one's joy. Siva indeed is often represented under the form of Nataraja, the king of dancing. The halo fringed with fire which surrounds him then symbolises the whole cosmos. A legend tells us that the god paid a visit to ten thousand Rishis who were heretics, in order to teach them the truth. But the Rishis received him with curses. As these had no effect they called up a terrible tiger which rushed at Siva to devour him. The smiling god took the skin off the tiger with the nail of his little finger, and hung it round himself like a shawl. Then the Rishis brought forth a horrible snake, and Siva hung it round his neck like a garland. Then appeared a demon dwarf, entirely black, armed with a mace. Siva set foot on his back and began to dance. Wearied by their efforts the hermits gazed at him in silence, captivated by the rapidity and dazzling splendour of the marvellous rhythm. Suddenly the heretics saw the heavens opened and the gods assembled to watch the dancer, and threw themselves at Siva's feet to worship him. There are many other legends of Siva's dancing. The god destroys and creates in the dance 'Tandava', by which at the end of a cosmic period the world of appearances disappears but actually is reintegrated in the absolute. Siva has the genial intoxication and mystic fervour of Dionysus, with whom the Indo-Greeks confused him. Siva's dance symbolises divine activity as the source of movement in the universe, particularly under the aspect of the cosmic functions of creation - conservation, destruction, incarnation and liberation. Its object is to rid men of illusion. When the god dances in cremation places, which are impure and full of fearful monsters, he is terrifying, the destroyer, and doubtless represents some pre-Aryan demon. It is also a way of showing that the demons are drawn into the dance of this universal god, and that in this way their evil powers are neutralised. The place of cremation also symbolises the disciple's heart, where the self and its deeds are consumed, where everything has to disappear except the divine Dancer himself with whom the soul at last is identified. The supreme and perfect rhythm of this dynamic and triumphant joy is better expressed by dancing than by words. 'Ho whom no sign can describe is made known to us by his mystic dance,' says a poet of Southern India, a disciple of Siva. Sivaism provides us with a magnificent cosmic synthesis where life and death continually give birth to one another, but where both are constantly dominated by a clear serene vision. Siva Episodes. Siva's life abounds in instances of devotion and in earlier pages we saw how he swallowed the poison which threatened to destroy the world during the churning of the sea (page 367). When the gods consented to the descent of Ganga (the Ganges), the heavenly river, the weight of this mass of water would have engulfed the earth, if the god with the trident had not offered himself to lessen the shock. Falling into his tangled hair, the heavenly Ganga wandered about the god's head for several years without finding an outlet. Finally Siva had to divide her into seven streams so that she could descend on earth without causing a catastrophe. As they fell the waters made a noise like thunder, while fish and turtles fell with them. The Devas, the Rishis, the Gandharvas and the Yakshas, seated on their elephants or their horses or their chariots were amazed at the sight. All creatures rejoiced. The shining of the Devas and their jewels lighted up the whole sky like a hundred suns, the turtles and fish crossing it looked like flashes of lightning, and the pale foam flakes flew away like white birds. The waters poured on inexhaustibly, from heaven on to Siva's head and from Siva's head on to the earth; and there they split up into brooks and streams, climbing mountains and falling back into the valleys. Parvati. The feminine divinity which personifies the 'power' (Sakti) of Siva is Parvati, daughter of the Himalayas, also named Uma, the gracious, and Bhairavi, the terrible, Ambika the generatrix, Sati the good wif?, Gauri the brilliant, Kali the black, Durga the inaccessible. We have already had glimpses of this goddess's terrible aspects in dealing with her battles against demons. According to the legend the appearance of Siva's third eye was caused by a frolic of his wife's. While he was meditating on the mountain, Uma imitating her husband observed a similar discipline, but one day she stole up mischievously behind her husband and covered his eyes with her lovely hands. Immediately the light of the world went out, the sun grew pallid and every creature trembled with fear. And then suddenly the darkness was dispelled, for a flaming eye had opened on Siva's forehead, a third eye like the sun, from which sprang flames which kindled all the Himalayas. The daughter of the mountain, grief-stricken and supplicating, displayed so much pain that with a kindly thought the god restored the mountains in all their splendour with their exuberant animals and plants. Parvati often wearied of her husband's perpetual asceticism. In vain she waited patiently beside him in adoration; plunged in his meditations he did not even notice her presence. To tear Siva away from his contemplations the gods one spring day sent him Love (Kamadeva) and his wife, Pleasure. Choosing the moment when Parvati was approaching her husband to worship him, Love drew his bow, but at the very moment when he was about to loose the shaft Siva saw him. and with a burning flash of his third eye consumed Love, who thereafter bore the name of Ananga, deprived of his limbs. While Pleasure mourned over him who, as she believed, was for ever lost, a voice spoke to her saying: 'Your husband will return. When Siva weds Parvati he will give back Love's body to his soul.' Parvati, weary of the god's indifference, had entered upon the life of a hermit. One day she was visited by a young Brahman who praised her for her faithful devotion, but tried to persuade her to return to the world. As she became angry the young man revealed that he was Siva himself. He promised her his love, but Parvati asked that first he should return the body of Kamadeva to his wife Pleasure. Siva agreed, and having taken Parvati to mount Kailasa at last consented to yield to her desire. Their embrace made the whole world tremble. THE DESCENDANTS OF SIVA AND PARVATI Ganesa. Ganesa is one of the most popular Hindu divinities. He was made by Parvati from the dew of her body mingled with dust, and acts as guardian to the goddess's gate. One day in an excess of zeal he tried to prevent Siva from entering, and for this he had his head cut off. But the indulgent Siva ordered that he should be brought the. head of the first animal which happened to come along. Chance brought an elephant, and the resurrected son of Parvati received a new appearance. Small and stocky with a fat stomach he has four arms, and carries in his hands an elephant-goad, a rosary, and an alms-bowl. His steed is nothing but a rat, a contemptuous form bestowed by him on a demon he had vanquished. Ganesa's fat belly is the sign of his insatiable gluttony. They relate that one day after gorging himself with offerings he decided to take a ride to stir up his digestion. Mounted on his rat he was ambling along in the moonlight when a huge snake barred his way. The rat was frightened and leaped to one side, and Ganesa rebounded from earth so violently that he burst his belly! To compel the snake to repair the damage he had caused, Ganesa took hold of him and rolled him round his damaged stomach. Recovering from the emotions of his accident the god was preparing to continue on his way when suddenly he heard great shouts of laughter ringing across the sky. It was the moon jeering at him! In a rage Ganesa broke off one his tusks and threw it in the mocker's face with a curse which periodically deprived the moon of his light, and lasts to this day. Another version says that Ganesa tore out his tusk in a burst of enthusiasm to write down the Mahabharata from the dictation of the wise Vyasa. And in fact, despite the grotesque features of his legend, the elephant-headed god is the patron of literature. This should not surprise us, for Ganesa partakes of the natures of the two most intelligent beings, man and the elephant. However he is above all a popular deity. Gentle, calm, propitious, he loves men and is loved by them. His good sense and friendliness are equally famous. He bestows riches, and assures the success of every undertaking. Nothing should be begun, not even the worship of another god, without first honouring Ganesa. He is particularly revered by the shop-keeping class. Even today if a bank fails the statues of Ganesa in the offices are turned round. Karrtikeya or Skanda. He is a war-god and was created by Siva at the request of the other gods to rid them of a demon. Siva directed the fire of his third eye on a lake, and instantly there emerged six children, who were suckled by the wives of Rishis. But one day when Parvati was cuddling them she squeezed so hard that they formed a single body. However, the six heads remained, and are figured in most statues of Karttikeya. This war god rides on a peacock, and carries a cock as his standard. Kubera or Kuvera. He is a god of wealth, and also Siva's son. He hides, like his treasures, in the depths of the earth, listening to the music of artistic and horse-riding genii, like the Gandharvas and Kinnaras. The Trimurti. Ingenious attempts were made to identify the two great sectarian gods, Vishnu and Siva, in the name of the idea that terror and love must have the same principle and the same end. For its part the Brahman caste altered its prototype of the absolute, brahman (neuter), a ritual formula, into a personal god, Brahma, masculine, who could be the equivalent of either Vishnu or Siva, and consequently bring them together. The representation of this Trimurti, triple aspect, is rather rare in sculpture. Hinduism moreover has given birth to other composite deities. Hari-Hara is partly Vishnu and partly Siva, and is represented as divided into two halves by a vertical line, the right side bearing the attributes of Siva - the ascetic's hair-knot, the trident, the tiger-skin - and on the left Vishnu's tiara, disk and draped garment. A curious figure is Ardhanarisvara (the god one half woman) considered however as solely an aspect of Siva - one half the statue represents the god, and the other half his 'Sakti', the manifestation of his energy in the feminine mode. Far too often the Trimurti is used to suggest that India possessed a sort of Trinity with three equal figures. There is really only a rather artificial syncretism. Brahma, who personifies an abstraction, plays a very humble religious part in comparison with Vishnu and Siva, who for more than two thousand years have ruled the souls of Indians. However, the orthodoxy which was a possession of the priestly caste was preserved, thanks to the wholesale annexation of the sectarian cults. Once the Trimurti was formed, it received an adequate interpretation in each sect. Here is how Sivaism accepted it - the story is told by Brahma to the gods Rishis: 'In the night of Brahma when all beings were confounded in the same silent immobility, I observed the great Narayana, the soul of the universe with a thousand omniscient eyes, at once being and not-being, brooding over the waters without form, supported by the thousand-headed snake of the Infinite. Blinded by the shining I touched the eternal being and asked: "Who are you? Speak." Then lifting towards me his eyes like still sleepy lotus flowers he stood up, smiled, and said: "Welcome, my child, splendid Lord!" I was offended and replied: "How can you, a sinless god, treat me as a master treats a pupil, and call me child, I who am the cause of creation and of destruction, the creator of a thousand universes, the source of all that exists?" Vishnu replied: "Do you not know that I am Narayana, creator, preserver and destroyer of worlds, the eternal male, immortal source and centre of the universe? Even you were born from my imperishable body." 'And we argued together sharply over the sea without form, when to our eyes there appeared a glorious shining lingam, a pillar flaming with the light of a hundred fires able to destroy the universe, without beginning, without middle, without end, incomparable, indescribable. The great Vishnu was disturbed by these thousands of flames as I was, and said: "We must seek the source of this fire. I will descend, and you will ascend with all your strength." Then he took the form of a wild boar, like a mountain of blue collyrium, with sharp tusks, a long snout, a deep grunt, short strong feet, vigorous, irresistible. He descended for a thousand years but could not reach the base of the lingam. Meanwhile I had changed into a swan, entirely white, with burning eyes, wide wings, and my flight was as swift as the wind and thought itself. For a thousand years I flew up trying to reach the top of the pillar, but I could not reach it. When I returned I found the Vishnu had already returned weary. 'Then Siva appeared before us, and tamed by his magic we bowed before him. On all sides rose up his Om, eternal and clear. Vishnu said to him: "Our discussion has been fortunate, O god of gods, since you have appeared to put an end to it." And Siva replied: "In truth you are the creator, the preserver and the destroyer of worlds. My child, maintain both inertia and movement in the world. For I, the supreme indivisible Lord am three - Brahma, Vishnu and Siva; I create, I maintain, I destroy."' The very variety of these combinations, their almost interchangeable character, show that in the end the gods are reducible to one another, according to the point of view adopted by the worshipper. Under the swarming polytheism which animates Hindu mythology is hidden a profound doctrine of unity. 'God is One', says the Rig-Veda, 'but the sages, vipra, give him many names.' EXPANSION OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY While the mythology of the Little Vehicle conquered Indo-China, and that of the Great Vehicle Tibet, China, Japan, and the Indonesian archipelago, the mythology of Hinduism was exported to Cambodia and Java. Angkor-Wat, for instance, bears magnificent witness to it. There would scarcely exist an Indian statuary, either in the metropolis or the colonies, if mythology had not made the towering flight which we have tried to sketch the main lines. CHINESE MYTHOLOGY INTRODUCTION Constitutive elements of Chinese mythology It is well known that in China three different religions co-exist - Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, the two first of which have their own temples and priests: the Bonzes and Tao-shih, while the last has temples without priests. Chinese mythology has been formed from a mixture of elements belonging to these three religions, but these elements were not taken over intact. They suffered changes, sometimes rather profound changes, especially through the influence of plays and novels. From early times and in the first years even of the Chinese Republic the official religion remained Confucianism. Every year the Emperor, followed by his courtiers, in spring and autumn made sacrifices to Heaven, the Sun, the Moon, the Soil, the god of War, Confucius, and the Ancestors, in each of their respective temples. Apart from that there was no special religious cult, except perhaps of Confucius himself. Some of these divinities were retained by the people in their mythology, but entirely changed their personality. The same thing happened with the two other religions. Thus, certain Buddhist divinities may often be found under other names in mythology, while Taoism, to which Chinese mythology owes the greatest debt, was completely overturned and changed even to the personality of Lao-tzu, who is called its founder. In reality Lao-tzu was nearly a contemporary of Confucius (he is said to have lived in the sixth century B.C.) and like him was a philosopher. But popular legends endowed him with immortality and the power of conquering demons, claiming that he was the incarnation of the Celestial Master of the First Origin, one of the members of the Taoist supreme triad. After having spread his teaching and bestowed on his disciple, Yin Hsi, the Tao-te Ching or 'Book of the First Principle and its Virtue' he mounted a green ox and disappeared towards the West. He was never seen again. The true founder of existing Taoism, which we shall call popular Taoism, was Chang Tao-ling who lived in the second century of our era and was deified in the eighth century. He received various revelations and, it seems, succeeded in preparing the drug of immortality. He fought with eight King-demons and conquered them thanks to his magic powers and his talismans; and finally after numerous exploits he ascended into heaven with his wife and two disciples, but not until he had passed on his various secret powers to his son. Chang Tao-ling had bestowed on himself the title of Celestial-Master (T'ien-shih). His title passed from generation to generation of his descendants, and the writer recollects that at the beginning of the Republic the Celestial-Master of the epoch, a boy of about twelve, came to Peking to seek an audience of the president of the Republic, Yuan Shih-k'ai, who received him with great ceremony and confirmed him in his title. Most of the divinities of Chinese mythology are of Taoist origin, and it should be added that many of them were made popular by two novels - Travels in the West, and Romance of the Investiture .of the Gods, both dating from the Ming epoch, about the fifteenth century. Characteristics of the Chinese Pantheon Perhaps the most curious fact about the Chinese Pantheon is that it is arranged in imitation of earthly organisation. It appears as a vast government administration, or, still more precisely, as a series of government departments, each one with its Minister and its personnel. The different gods are positive bureaucrats with a strict hierarchy of rank and with clearly defined powers. They keep registers, make reports, issue directives, with a regard for formalities and a superabundance of papers which the most pedantic administration on earth might well envy. Every month they furnish a detailed report to their immediate superiors, and they every year give an account of their administration to the sovereign god, the August Personage of Jade, who then distributes his praise and his censure. The gods, according to circumstances, are then promoted or lowered in rank, and they may even be dismissed. This is one of the most original characteristics of all Chinese mythology, for the gods are not immutable. Only function persists -the functionary changes. New gods take the place of the old. And these changes do not only occur in time, but in space. By that we must understand that in different regions the same powers are in many instances allotted to quite a varying number of different personages. The explanation is that most Chinese gods are not in origin divine, but human; they are men who have been deified after their death. These different facts explain the large number of divinities which inhabit Chinese mythology. It would be too long and too tedious to look over all of them in these pages and we shall deal only with the most important or most popular gods, referring those interested to Father Dore's Recherches sur les Superstitions en Chine, and to the chapter devoted to Chinese mythology by H. Maspero in the Mythologie asiatique illustree. I make a point of stressing how much the present study owes to that work. HEAVEN AND ITS GODS Heaven is the dwelling of sidereal divinities, but they do not live together. Each god has his own palace, and moreover Heaven is divided into different levels, some say nine and others thirty-three. The gods with the highest seniority in office are the most important and live on the top level. The August Personage of Jade On the topmost level surrounded with his Court lives the August Personage of Jade (Yu-ti) also known as the August Supreme Emperor of Jade (Yu-huang-shang- ti) or again and most usually Father-Heaven (Lao-tien-yeh). They say he was one of the first gods who existed and that he created human beings - such at least is the tradition in Northern China. They add that Father-Heaven made human beings by modelling them in clay, and when his task was ended he put his statuettes to dry in the sun. At this moment a heavy shower of rain fell and Father-Heaven hastened to put his statuettes in shelter. But some of them were damaged by the rain, and they constitute the sick living on earth, while the healthy whose limbs are whole and complete are the statuettes which were not damaged. Although recognised as the greatest of the gods, the August Personage of Jade is only the second person of the supreme triad, which includes the Heavenly Master of the First Origin, who preceded the August Personage of Jade, and the Heavenly Master of the Dawn of Jade of the Golden Door, who one day will succeed him. The August Personage of Jade lives in a palace exactly similar to that of the Emperor who reigns over human beings. The doorway of this palace is guarded by Wang, a transcendental bureaucrat, who is armed with a stick and clad in armour and does duty as door-keeper. There the August Personage of Jade grants many audiences, for his Court is exactly like that of the human Emperor - he has his Ministers and his officers, represented by secondary gods, and he has an army of heavenly soldiers to fight the rebel Spirits when necessary. He has a family - a wife, sisters, daughters, nephews. Among the last-named we must note the Second Lord (Erh-lang) who drives away evil spirits, helped by the Celestial Dog (T'ien-kou). He is a god said to know seventy-two ways of transforming himself. He is much respected, and has numerous temples dedicated to him. The wife of the August Personage of Jade, the Queen Mother Wang (Wang-mu niang-niang), is no doubt a popular corruption of the elderly character, the Lady-Queen of the West, who is spoken of in the Romance of the Emperor Mu (found in a tomb and dating from the fourth century). The ancient legends represent her as wife of the Lord-King of the East, dwelling on the K'un-lun mountains, which is the abode of the Immortals; the popular legends present her as the wife of the August Personage of Jade, living on the highest level of Heaven with her attendants. However, in spite of this transformation, she keeps her ancient attributes. She presides over the banquets of immortality which she gives to the gods, banquets mainly furnished with the peaches of immortality, P'an-t'ao, which ripen once every three thousand years on the peach-trees of the imperial orchard - which is why in China the peach is the symbol of longevity. The August Personage of Jade is always represented wearing the high ceremonial costume, Chinese style, of the Emperor (note that the gods are always represented in Chinese and never in Manchu costume), with embroidered dragons on his robe. He wears on his head the headdress of the Emperors, formed by a flat board from which hang, in front and behind, thirteen pendants of coloured pearls on red strings, and his crossed hands hold the Imperial book of etiquette. He is seated on a throne, sometimes with secondary gods, his attendants, beside him, but more often alone. And like all gods who are supposed to have reached middle age, he wears long whiskers and a tuft of beard. As to the Queen Mother Wang, she is usually represented as a beautiful young woman also in ceremonial dress, sometimes alone but sometimes with a peacock or surrounded by her ladies in waiting. During the monarchy the Emperor every year made two solemn sacrifices to the August Personage of Jade, one in the winter solstice and one in spring. They were both celebrated in the huge Temple of Heaven situated in the south suburb of Peking. The Emperor was carried to the Temple in a monumental chair, accompanied by an imposing procession of princes, dignitaries, soldiers, and imposing procession of princes, dignitaries, soldiers, and dancers. He went up the three stages of the altar of Heaven, an enormous mound encircled with marble balustrades, bowed to the ground before the fire lighted in the god's honour, and made his offerings, which consisted of rolls of silk, disks of jade, various meats and many other libations. NATURE DIVINITIES AND SIDEREAL GODS Sun and Moon. We have already noted that the Sun and Moon were the objects of an official cult, but the people's worship was quite different. For them the Sun is a god who originally lived in the form of a cock but by following the Path obtained a human face. In the ordinary way he was only offered one sacrifice at the beginning of the year and another on his birthday, and that was all. There were very few Temples dedicated to him. The same is true of the Moon, except that it received more sacrifices. The festival of the Moon is one of the three great annual Chinese feasts, and takes place on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, at the full moon of the autumn equinox. It is especially a festival for women and children, who buy little figures representing either a white rabbit or a helmeted soldier dressed in his armour with a face like a hare, and make them a sacrifice consisting chiefly of fruit. They offer a sacrifice directly to the Moon when it has risen a little above the house-tops. In some families the sacrifice is made before a large paper panel with a representation of the Moon's palace with its inhabitant the Hare who makes the drug of immortality. The sacrifice consists of fruit, sweet cakes which are specially made and sold for the occasion, and a sprig of red amaranth. Men never take part in this ceremony, for in the popular mind the hare is the symbol of inverts - nobody knows why - and is considered their patron. The Moon is also inhabited by a personage who is considered the Moon goddess, Ch'ang-o or Heng-o. She is the wife of I, the Excellent Archer, a mythological personage who brought down nine suns with his arrows, one day when the ten suns of primitive times took it into their heads to rise together and threatened to shrivel up the world. The gods had given him the drug of immortality and one day he returned home to find that she had drunk it. He was so angry she fled to the Moon, her husband in hot pursuit. She asked protection of the Hare, who fought with I and made him give up his intention of punishing his wife, who henceforth has lived in the Moon. She is represented as a very beautiful young woman, and her name is often mentioned in novels and poems for it is said currently of a pretty woman that she is as 'beautiful, as if Ch'ang-o had come down from the Moon'. Rain, Thunder, Wind. Although Taoist religion includes a whole Ministry of Thunder made up of several divinities, the people recognise only one Thunder god called My Lord Thunder, Lei-kung. He is represented as a man of repulsive ugliness, with a body blue all over, furnished with wings and claws. He wears nothing but a loin-cloth, with one or more drums hanging at his side, and his hands hold a mallet and a chisel. There is general agreement that the chisel is used to strike the guilty whom the Thunder is ordered to punish, but there is less agreement about the uses of the mallet. Some say it is used to strike the drums to produce the rolls of thunder, but others think it is used to drive in the chisel. By orders of Heaven, the Thunder punishes human beings guilty of some great crime which has remained undetected or which human laws do not touch (usually some act which has directly or indirectly caused somebody's death); it also punishes evil spirits who by practising Tao doctrine have succeeded in gaining personality and make use of it to harm mankind, etc. However, he is not always able to achieve this by himself, and he sometimes needs human help. One day a hunter in pursuit of game had ventured far into a thick forest and was surprised by a violent storm. Flashes of lightning and thunder were continuous, and seemed to hover over a tree which lifted its tall branches not far from where the hunter stood. Looking up he saw a child holding in its hands a flag roughly made from a piece of cloth tied to a bit of wood. When the Thunder approached the child waved its flag, and the Thunder immediately retreated. It is well known that Thunder, like all the gods, dislikes unclean things and especially the blood of black dogs, and the hunter at once realised that the child was an evil spirit pursued by the Thunder and that his flag was made of some unclean material. By way of helping on the divine work, he loaded his gun and shot down the flag. The Thunder at once struck the tree, but the hunter who was too close to it was also touched and fainted away. When he recovered he found a little roll of paper on his body containing the words: 'Life prolonged for twelve years, for helping on the work of Heaven', while at the foot of the shattered tree he found the corpse of a huge lizard, the real form of the child with the flag. Thunder has no Temple of his own - at least, it is very rare to meet with one. Moreover the most worshipped gods are those who can give something, such as happiness, wealth, children, etc., so it is not surprising that nobody comes to ask anything from a god who can give nothing but a death entailing infamy; and yet there are some people who apply to him. Usually they are persons who have to complain of somebody else, and not being able to revenge themselves entrust their vengeance to the god. begging him to strike their enemies dead. During storms, Thunder, who can only make a noise, is helped by several other divinities. The flashes of lightning are produced by Mother-Lightning (Tien Mu) with the help of the mirrors she holds in her hands; the rain is produced by the Master of Rain (Yu-tzu) who with his sword sprinkles water from the pot he holds; the clouds are piled up by the Little Boy of the Clouds (Yun-t'ung); and the wind comes out of a kind of goatskin bottle carried by the Earl of Wind (Feng-po). Later on this last god was replaced by a goddess, an old woman named Mrs Wind (Feng-p'o-p'o). She may sometimes be seen moving among the clouds, riding on a tiger. The Dragon-Kings: Lung-Wang. However, for the people these divinities are subordinate to the Dragon-Kings who depend directly on the August Personage of Jade, from whom they receive the order to distribute a certain amount of rain to a given region. There are four Dragon-Kings of importance, each of whom rules one of the four seas of which the earth is the centre, and they are mostly known to the people as four brothers under the names they have in Travels in the West, which differ from those given them by the Taoists. They are Ao Kuang, Ao Jun, Ao Shun and Ao Ch'in. Each lives in a palace called the Crystal Palace, and has his Ministers, his army consisting offish, crabs and crayfish, and watchmen who see to the policing of the sea-bottom. These four Dragon-Kings are not much worshipped, although they have quite a lot of temples, because the local Dragon-Kings are much more respected. Indeed, every watercourse and every well has its Dragon-King. In northern China beside every well there is a tiny temple with the statue of its god, represented as a mandarin in ceremonial costume, and on the first and fifteenth of each month the owner of the well makes it a rudimentary sacrifice of three joss-sticks. The Dragon-Kings bring rain, and so are resorted to in droughts. The ceremonies vary with the locality. In the big towns a procession is often organised, with the effigy of a dragon in cloth which serves specially for this event. The effigy is taken through the main streets of the town, preceded by a band and persons dancing. In the villages they don't do this. During bad droughts the village people go and ask for rain from the Dragon-Kings in the most important temple and offer an ample sacrifice. If at the end of a few days their prayers are not answered, the god's statue is taken out of the temple and left beside the road, for they rightly suppose that this treatment will cause suffering to a god who lives in the depths of waters, and that he will hasten to ask the August Personage of Jade for permission to send rain. On the other hand if after the sacrifice or the exposure of the stature it happens that enough rain falls to save the crops, the rejoicing is universal. A new sacrifice is made by the whole village, and important places may honour the god by giving a theatrical performance which lasts three days. Sometimes a number of neighbouring villages will club together to do the thing more handsomely. Naturally, if it rains too much or there is a threat ui rtoods, the Dragon-Kings are again approached, but this time with a view to stopping the rain. The God of Literature, Wen Ch'ang, and the God of Examinations, K'uei-hsing. The god of Examinations is the god of the four stars which form the waggon of Charles's Wain. He is a follower of the god of Literature, Wen Ch'ang. Only after he had lived through seventeen successive lives, filled with prodigious events, was Wen Ch'ang invested by the August Personage of Jade with the functions of Grand Emperor of Literature. He is usually represented sitting down, dressed as a mandarin, and holding a sceptre. Although his cult goes back to a very ancient epoch, Wen Ch'ang is less popular than his assistant, K'uei-hsing. Before the 1912 revolution, when the Imperial examinations took place regularly, there was a tablet or image of K'uei-hsing in every literary family. In some wealthy families it was not uncommon to see a little kiosk especially devoted to his cult, for he presides over examinations and chooses the person who is to come out top. Like the god of Thunder, the god of Examinations is one of the ugliest in existence. He is usually represented making a grimace, standing on the head of a turtle Ao (which many people think is a fish) in an attitude resembling that of the genius of the Bastille, bending forward, with his left leg raised behind as if he is running. In his left hand he holds a bushel-basket and in his right a paintbrush. When the list of candidates is placed before the August Personage of Jade he indicates the name of the first successful candidate. He uses his brush to put a mark under the name of the lucky candidate, and uses his bushel to measure the talents of them all. They say also that the bushel is the distinctive sign of the god, since in China Charles's Wain or the Great Bear is called The Northern Bushel. There are two explanations of the turtle's head which he tramples under his foot. Some say that during his life on earth he came out first in the examination for his doctorate, but that when the reigning Emperor saw how ugly he was he refused to ratify the choice of the examiners. In his despair he tried to drown himself, but when he threw himself into the water, the turtle Ao received him on its head and took him back to land. The other explanation is less miraculous. The stairways of the imperial palace are all divided down the centre by a paved space on which is carved the head of the turtle Ao emerging from the water. When the Emperor gave an audience to the scholars who had passed their doctorate examinations the first was naturally placed jiM above this piece of carving. Hence it happened that each candidate received the wish 'may you alone stand on the head of Ao', and that is why the god of examinations was represented in this posture, as an omen of good luck. Another of Wen Ch'ang's assistants is 'Red Jacket' who protects candidates who are not very well prepared. Thanks to him some of them sometimes succeed; but in spite of his goodwill, it is better to work hard and thus obtain the favour of K'uei-hsing or Wen Ch'ang, who never fail a deserving candidate. A young student who had worked conscientiously returned home after the examination, dissatisfied with his essay. Fearing failure, he invoked Wen Ch'ang and begged him to intervene. While he was asleep the god appeared to him. The student saw him throwing a number of essays into a stove, and among them the candidate recognised his own. The god crumbled them to pieces and then took them out entirely altered. Wen Ch'ang handed the young man the corrected essay, and he learnt it by heart. When he awoke the candidate heard that during the night a fire had destroyed the building where the essays had been stored, so that the examinations had to be repeated. He did the work again, taking care to make use of the god's advice, and of course passed. Gods of Happiness. The first of these gods is the god of Long Life, Shou-hsing. He is the star Canopus in the ship Argo. He is one of the easiest gods to recognise, for he has the face of an old man with pure white beard and eyebrows, and is especially noteworthy for an enormous bald head. He is usual'y represented standing, leaning on a large rough stick, with the peach of Immortality in one hand. He is often accompanied by a stork or a turtle, animals which were supposed to live to a great age, and thus became symbols of longevity. In China, as is well known, old age is considered a great blessing. So, although there is no regular worship of this god, who indeed has no temples, he is very much honoured. When there is a birthday celebration for an aged person (someone at least fifty) the image of the god, usually embroidered in silk, is hung up in a place of honour. Food and fruit are placed in front of it with two large red lighted candles. The person whose birthday it is salutes the image by bowing low thrice before it, and throughout the day visitors first address their congratulations to the god's image. Shou-hsing decides the date of everyone's death. He writes it beforehand on his tablets, and from that moment fate is unchangeable. And yet the god can change his mind, by juggling with the writing. Thus the death of a certain young man had been fixed for the age of nineteen. But then Shou-hsing, wanting to thank him for the gift of a jar of wine he had offered, just reversed the numbers one and nine, so that instead of 19 years he had 91 - which is what the change makes in Chinese. The god of Long Life is one of a triad, which also includes the god of Happiness, Fu-hsing, and the god of Salaries, Lu-hsing. Both are historical persons divinised after their death. It seems that the god of Happiness in his life-time was a mandarin who lived at Tao-chou in the sixth century, though others see in him a general who saved the T'ang dynasty in the eighth century. The god of Salaries, or god of Functionaries, was a person who served the founder of the Han dynasty, in the third century before our era. Space is lacking to describe these divinities in more detail. We must limit ourselves to saying that these three gods often represented together either in human form - the gods of Happiness and of Salaries dressed in the robes of a mandarin - or in the form of symbols - bats for Happiness (in Chinese the word for bat is pronounced 'Fu', like happiness), a deer, called Lu, for the god of Salaries, and a stork or a peach or sometimes a pine for the god of Long Life. The Heavenly Spinster, Chih-nii Although she is a divinity and a daughter of the August Personage of Jade, so they say, there is no worship of the Heavenly Spinster, the goddess of the star Alpha in the Lyre. But she is the heroine of a pretty popular legend, and her name is often mentioned in Chinese folklore. The goddess was continually spinning robes for the August Personage of Jade, robes of brocade and clouds which have no seams. To reward her for this work her father, taking pity on her loneliness, married her to the Heavenly Cow-herd (the Beta and Gamma stars in Aquila) but after her marriage the Spinster was so much absorbed in her love that she neglected her work. The August Personage of Jade lost his temper, and separated the couple by putting one of them to the right and the other to the left of the Heavenly River (the Milky Way) with permission to see each other once a year. That, so to speak, is the goddess's official history. The people took it up and enlivened it, and this is what they relate. The Cow-herd was a mere mortal, a little simple minded, whose father had bequeathed him a little bit of land and an ox to plough it. When he had reached a marriageable age his ox (who was a genius in disguise) said to him: 'Master, if you want a pretty wife without having to spend anything, go on a certain day to the river, and you will see all the girls bathing. Their clothes will be on the bank. Pick up a bundle and come back quickly. Hide them somewhere, and I promise you shall have a pretty wife.' The Cow-herd did as the ox suggested, and when he got home threw the clothes down an old well behind the house, and waited. Very soon their owner came along to ask for them. It was the Heavenly Spinster who for amusement had come down to earth with a few friends and had wanted to bathe, but now could not return to Heaven without her clothes. The Cow-herd therefore detained and married her. After several years he had a son by her and then a daughter, and one day his wife said to him: 'Now that we have been married so long and have children, tell me where you hid my heavenly clothes.' The unsuspicious Cow-herd showed her the hiding place. The Spinster hastened to take them out, dressed in them, and and returned to Heaven. The Cow-herd was in despair, especially as the children cried aloud for their mother; so he went and asked the advice of his ox. And the ox said: 'Master, put each of your children in a basket, and tie them to the ends of a pole which you can balance on your shoulders. Then lake hold of my tail, shut your eyes, and I will take you to Heaven to rejoin your wife.' And this was done. When they got to Heaven, the Cow-herd requested an audience of the August Personage of Jade and demanded his wife. The August Personage of Jade sent for the Spinster, and having discovered that the facts alleged by the Cow-herd were true, he made him immortal, and appointed him to be god of a star to the west of the River, while the Spinster was to the East, with permission to meet once every seven days. But the couple misunderstood him, and thought they could meet only once a year on the seventh day of the seventh month, and that is what they have done ever since. As they cannot cross the River without a bridge, on that day all the magpies fly up to Heaven with the twig of a tree and make a foot-bridge for them to be able to meet. This legend is spread all over China, and many poetic works refer to it. Moreover in northern China they say that on the seventh day of the seventh month it is bound to rain, at least in the morning (it falls by the way in the middle of the rainy season) because the Cowherd and the Spinster weep for joy at seeing each other again, and their tears fall down on the earth. GODS WHO TAKE CARE OF MANKIND The Great Emperor of the Eastern Peak, T'ai-yueh-ta-ti or Tung-yueh-ta-ti Although the August Personage of Jade is interested in everything that goes on in heaven and earth, he can't look after it all himself. So he detailed a god to look after mankind - he is the Great Emperor of the Eastern Peak, the god of the mountain T'ai-shan, in Shantung. This divinity is directly responsible to the August Personage of Jade, and has a large staff under his orders, for he presides over the life of men from their birth to their death, arranging their fate and determining their fortunes, honours, posterity, etc. Even the animals come under his jurisdiction. So he is widely worshipped. There is always a crowd in all his sanctuaries, and his temple in Peking, Tung-yueh-miao, was one of the richest. It is also one of the largest, for there are represented in it over eighty offices dependent on the god - offices of birth, of death, offices for the determination of social position, of wealth, of the number of children. There are also offices which keep registers of good and bad actions, and those for the retribution of these actions, etc. The personnel of the offices is recruited from the souls of the dead. In his temple the Emperor of the Eastern Peak is represented sitting down, wearing the costume of an Emperor, in a shape similar to that of the August Personage of Jade. Indeed, it would be very difficult to distinguish one from the other, if they were taken out of their surroundings. He is too important a god for his statue or picture to appear in family households. His devotees go to the temple to pay him their respects, and they go there when they have any request to make to the god. The Emperor of the Eastern Peak has a daughter, the Princess of streaked Clouds, Pi-hsia-yuan-chun, also known as the Holy-Mother, Sheng-mu. She protects women and children, and usually presides over births. According to tradition, her husband is either the son of the western sea, or Mao Ying, who anciently attained immortality. The goddess, greatly venerated throughout China, is usually represented sitting, and with a headdress of three birds with outstretched wings. Her assistants are the Eady of Good Sight, who preserves children from eye maladies, and the Eady whose function it is to bring children. The Princess of streaked Clouds has a Buddhist double in the person of the goddess Kuan-yin, who has in addition the surname of Sung-tzu niang-niang, the Eady who brings children. Draped in a large white veil, she sits on a lotus flower, and holds a child in her arms. Kuan-yin, goddess of fecundity, is equally expert in treating all sicknesses. So she is very popular, and her image is to be found in nearly every home. Every year long lines of pilgrims visit her Temple of Miao Feng Shan (the Mountain of the Wondrous Peak), situated about forty miles from Peking. Sick persons of all kinds come to implore the goddess to heal them, among the smoke of joss-sticks, the popping of crackers, and the creaking of rattles, which are supposed to win the favour of Kuan-yin. Gods of Walls and Ditches, Ch'eng-huang and Gods of the Locality, T'u-ti. Every administrative area, town, or large village, has a god who protects it and takes care of the inhabitants, called the God of Walls and Ditches; and these gods are appointed by the August Personage of Jade. They are invariably divinised human beings, either heroes or mandarins of integrity, generally speaking persons who in their lifetime served and protected the people. After their death they are not reincarnated but are nominated as Ch'eng-huang of such and such a place, so that they can continue to protect the people. Chinese folklore contains a great many legends about these gods. The main outline changes very little. The inhabitants of a place are warned in a dream that on a certain date a person named Ch'eng-huang of the town will come to occupy his post; and on the date specified the noise of a procession and band is heard in the streets - the new god has arrived. Next day the inhabitants hasten to offer him a big arrival sacrifice. Very often, if the god is someone well known, they recast the statue in the temple consecrated to him and give it this person's head. Some legends say that when there is a vacancy for the post of god of Walls and Ditches, the gods arrange a competition for the candidates who are chosen from among living scholars. Such is the story of 'The Examination for God of Walls and Ditches' contained in the famous collection, Tales of the Studio of Joy. In the popular mind the Ch'eng-huang plays the part of protector and governor to the place of which he is the god. His rank varies in accordance with the importance of the place he governs. Sometimes he corresponds only to a sub-prefect among human beings, sometimes to a prefect, while the Ch'eng-huang of Peking was the equal of the governor of the town. Human magistrates were far from disdaining them, and during the Empire sub-prefects were known to have asked their advice and help when a crime had been committed on their territory. With this in view they fasted for at least a day, offered a sacrifice to the god, and then slept that night in the temple. In their dreams the god pointed out the guilty party, usually by means of Sybilline poems. Needless to say, this custom has long since disappeared. In the times before the Republic the festival of Ch'eng-huang took place in the spring of every year. The god's statue was carried round the town with great pomp, and this was called 'My Eord Ch'eng-huang's tour of inspection'. At the head of the procession went the God of the Place, represented either by his statue or by a notable in disguise. Following in his tracks they purified the streets with vinegar, and then came Ch'eng-huang's assistants, among them Mr White and Mr Black, who watch over the town, one by day and one by night; and Ox-Head and Horse-Face, who carry out the god's orders. Around these divinities marched groups of demons with hideous masks and penitents in the red robes of those to be tortured, amid a great waving of banners and a deafening noise of gongs. Finally came the statue of Ch'eng-huang carried in a rich palanquin and religiously escorted by the city dignitaries. As may be guessed, this ceremony occasioned great popular rejoicings. The gods of Walls and Ditches only exist in administrative areas, in towns surrounded by walls (whence the name). This is not the case with the gods of Place (T'u-ti), who are less important gods but more popular. Each town, whether fortified or not, and every village, has one. There is a Place god for every street, every temple; every public building has one, and so it is with every dwelling. According to the legends they are sometimes famous persons who have been appointed to this work after their death, but as a rule they are anonymous. They are represented in the form of an old man with white beard, in ordinary clothes, carrying a long knotty stick, while his wife - who is always shown with him - is represented as a kindly old woman. Naturally the personality of the gods varies with the kind of place they look after. In the towns the Place god is a citizen, but in the country a peasant. The Place god has very modest functions. He acts as a sort of policeman to his territory, and in the country he has to scare off robbers and animals which raid the poultry yard, etc; but in recompense his cult is very wide-spread, and every family has a statue of him before which three joss-sticks are burned every morning and evening. The Hearth god, Tsao-wang. The Hearth god is obviously domestic. He witnesses the acts and even words of every member of the family with which he lives, and keeps a record of them. Every year, on the twenty-third day of the twelfth month, he ascends into heaven to make his report to the August Personage of Jade, who on the basis of this report allots the family happiness or misfortune during the coming year. The Hearth god is not represented by a statue but by a picture on paper - it will be seen why, later on. This image, coarsely printed and coloured, is placed in a sort of little wooden temple just over the hearth, or in some other part of the kitchen. It is essential that the image should face south. In the picture the god's wife, Tsao-wang nai-nai, is beside him, for she aids him in his duties by also keeping a record of the women's sayings and doings. Apart from the three joss-sticks every morning, the family makes only two sacrifices a year to this god. The first takes place on the twenty-fourth day of the twelfth month when he has gone up to heaven to make his report to the August Personage of Jade. Among other offerings this sacrifice includes sweets which are specially made for the purpose and only sold at this time, as well as straw for the god's horse. After the sacrifice his picture is taken down from its niche and burned over a little fire of pine twigs to the noise of fire-crackers, but before starting the fire they are careful to put a bit of a sweet on his mouth so that he will 'speak sweet words' to the August Personage of Jade about the family he has just left. The Hearth god returns from Heaven on the first day of the new year. Another sacrifice is then offered up, always with firecrackers, and they hang up his picture in the kitchen, in the place it will occupy throughout the year. There is an explanation of the fire-crackers set off during these sacrifices. They are special fire-crackers which bang off high in the air, and they say that this is to help the god up during his ascension, while on his return the fire-crackers show the god which house he must re-enter. Then, there is another custom, which is not to light a fire in the kitchen while the Hearth god is absent in Heaven, but this is observed less and less. During the god's absence, you can do anything you like, for the god is not there to record bad actions. But then it is also a time when the house, lacking its protector, is liable to all kinds of woes and calamities. Door gods, Men-shen. On the outer doors of Chinese houses, which have two leaves, you often see represented two armed soldiers, stuck or painted on each of the leaves. One of them has a red or black face, and the other a white face - they are the Door gods. Originally these duties were entrusted to two mythical beings, Shen-t'u and Yu-lu, who in ancient mythology were supposed to prevent the spirits of the dead from escaping out of hell to disturb the peace of the living. The Ghosts' Door was placed between the branches of an enormous peach-tree planted on the top of a mountain. As soon as a malevolent soul appeared the two guards seized on him and threw him as food to the tigers. The figures of Shen-t'u and Yu-lu were later reproduced on the doors of houses to keep away evil spirits. Later on, these two divinities were replaced by historical personages who had been promoted to the rank of gods - Yu-ch'ih Ching-te, and Ch'in Shu-pao. They had both been generals of the Emperor T'ai-tsung of the T'ang dynasty, and lived at the beginning of the seventh century. The explanation of why they were chosen as Door gods is to be fund in the Travels in the Wesi. In the sixth chapter of that novel we are told that the Emperor T'ai-tsung, in spite of A figure from Te-hua, Fukien, depicting a Lo-han with a tiger seated beside him in a peaceful attitude. The original disciples of Buddha were called Lo-hans by the Chinese, who received the doctrines in the first century A. D. However, the Chinese modified the teachings to such a degree that a different form was created. Late seventeenth century porcelain. Victoria and Albert Museum. his promise, was unable to save a Dragon-King who had made a mistake in distributing rain and was condemned to have his head cut off by the August Personage of Jade. The spirit of this Dragon-King held that the Emperor was responsible for his death, and every night came and created a disturbance at the palace door. In consequence the Emperor fell sick, and his two generals, Yu-ch'ih Ching-te and Ch'in Shupao, suggested that they should keep guard over the palace door. The spirit of the Dragon-King was thus driven away, but he went off and created a disturbance at the back door, a door with only one leaf, and was driven away by T'ai-tsung's Minister, Wei Cheng. The Emperor therefore had these three personages painted on all doors, and the tradition lasted until our own time, although it is rather uncommon to see a painting of Wei Cheng, but then doors with one leaf are not very numerous in China. The Door gods are painted directly on to the doors of great houses, whereas humbler houses and those in the country simply have their printed and coloured images stuck on. They are represented in military dress, holding in one hand a long-handled mace, with a bow and arrows slung at their side. They keep away evil spirits and prevent them from entering the house they are guarding, and there are quantities of legends about their good services. In spite of which absolutely nothing is done in their worship. And then it must be noted that in recent times they lost a great deal of their religious character. Except among the people, usually extremely superstitious, they had come to be considered rather as themes for decoration than as divinities, and they are on the way to disappearing completely. None are to be seen, for instance, on the doors of houses in Peking. In Buddhist Temples, the Door gods are not Ch'in Shu-pao and Yu-ch'ih Ching-te, but are represented by different persons -the Sniffing General and the Puffing General (Heng-Ha-erh-Chiang) or else by the Heavenly Kings (T'ien Wang), the four brothers Mo-li. They are all represented by colossal grimacing figures placed in the first building of the temples. At first there were only the two generals, Sniffer and Puffer, one of whom has his mouth shut while the other has his mouth open. They are so called because during their lifetime it appears that one of them had the power of emitting from his nostrils jets of white light which mortals breathed in, while the other puffed fatal gases out of his mouth. Little by little in the course of ages these two personages have been replaced by the Celestial Kings. When you enter a Buddhist temple you come into the inner hall, a kind of vestibule divided by a courtyard from the great hall, and there you see four enormous statues ranged along the walls. They represent soldiers with grimacing countenances, respectively holding a sword, an umbrella, a guitar and a striped marten - sometimes replaced by a snake. They are the Celestial Kings, guardians of the four directions. Originally these personages were Buddhist divinities, named Vaisravana, Dhrtarastra, Virudhaka and Virupaksa. In course of time their personality changed under the influence of the novel, Royal Investiture. They are now considered to be the four brothers Mo-li, who were once generals famous for their deeds. The attributes they hold in their hands are simply the talismans by means of which they conquered their enemies during their mortal life. When the first flourished his sword he raised terrific whirlwinds which swept everything before them. The second merely had to open his umbrella and the sun was obscured, plunging the earth into deepest darkness while it poured with rain. The third controlled the direction of the winds by playing on his guitar. And the last annihilated his enemies by loosing his striped marten, who ate them up. Like the Celestial Kings, the Sniffing and Puffing Generals were also once Buddhist divinities. In these same outer halls may also be seen the statue of a young soldier, clad in shining armour and holding a knotty stick in his hands. This is Wei-t'o, chief of the thirty-two heavenly generals, and also assigned to guard doors. POPULAR GODS The God of Wealth, Ts'ai-shen This god has certainly had more success than any of them. Not only do the people never fail to offer up a sacrifice to him on his birthday, but even persons who claim to be unbelievers and pay no sort of cult to other gods, salute this god with great respect on the appointed day. The God of Wealth's anniversary is on the fifth day of the first month. On New Year's Day in Peking, the day on which all the gods descend on earth to make a tour of general inspection, the children run about the streets at night, shouting: 'We come to bring you the God of Wealth!' Each person hastens to buy one, and when other sellers appear the answer is: 'We already have one,' for it would not be in good taste to say: 'We don't want any more/ After it is purchased the image is placed beside that of other gods (the Star gods, the Hearth gods, etc.) and then they wait for the fifth day of the following month. On this day they sacrifice to the god a cock and a living carp specially reserved for this occasion, and then the image is burned on a fire of pine twigs accompanied by many fire-crackers, while the master of the house and all who live in it, without distinction of age or sex, come in succession to bow before the little fire. The Taoists made the god of Wealth the head of a Ministry of Wealth with offices and a string of subordinates, such as the Celestial and Venerable Discoverer of Treasures, the Celestial and Venerable Bringer of Treasures, the Immortal of commercial profits, etc. But the people like to simplify, and usually they take one of these gods - in Peking the best known is the god of Wealth who increases Happiness, Tseng-fu-ts'ai-shen. The novel, the Investiture of the Gods, identified him with the wise man, Pi Kan, who lived towards the end of the Yin dynasty, and was put to death by order of the Emperor who wanted to find out if it is true, as people say, that the heart of a wise man is pierced with seven openings. Elsewhere general Chao of the dark Terrace is revered as the god of Wealth. The Agent of Heaven, T'ien-Kuan, is another god who bestows happiness, and is one of a triad made up in addition to the Agent of the Earth, Ti-Kuan, who grants remission of sins and the Agent of Water, Shui-kuan, who averts evil. As M. Maspero has rightly pointed out, these three gods are the personification of the ancient Taoist ritual which insisted on a confession of sins written in triplicate, of which one was burned for Heaven, one buried for Earth, and the third sunk for Water. These three gods received twice a month an offering of cakes in the form of tortoises and chain-links, but the only one at all well known in our time is the Agent of Heaven, and that mainly thanks to the theatre, for it is the custom to begin every theatrical performance with a pantomime called 'the Agent of Heaven brings happiness', T'ien-kuan-ssu-fu. He appears in the form of a mandarin wearing ceremonial costume, with a smiling mask fringed with whiskers and a beard-tuft, does a sort of dance on the stage, carries rolled-up wishes for happiness which he unrolls as he presents them to the spectators. It is to be noted that this is one of the very rare occasions when a mask is used on the Chinese stage. The pantomime is also called 'the dance of the Agent who confers promotion', T'iao-chia-kuan; and formerly in public theatres, and still to this day in private performances given for some family rejoicing (birthday, birth of a child, etc.), the play is stopped and this pantomime is repeated as a sign of welcome to each distinguished guest as he arrives. The Emperor Kuan, Kuan-ti. The worship of this god does not date from very far back. He receives two sorts of cult, one from official religion and the other from the people. For scholars Kuan-ti is god of War, in opposition to Confucius, the god of Literature, and as such he receives two sacrifices, in the spring and autumn of each year. This tradition was maintained even by the Republic, at least until the time of the nationalist government of Nanking; and the successive presidents as well as the last dictator, Chang-Tso-lin, officially offered sacrifices to him with great pomp. For the crowd Kuan-ti is a Taoist god, governor and protector of the people, mainly playing the part of judge. So the people appeal to him every time they have something to complain of, whether it is spirits (demons, illness, etc.) or human beings (unfriendly bureaucrats, brigands, cheats, etc.) and Kuan-ti sends his equerry Shou-ts'ang to punish them, or makes an appeal to the Thunder god or some other god to do it. Kuan-ti is also famous for predicting the future. In most of the temples consecrated to him the necessary equipment may be found, consisting of eighty-one or sixty-four numbered slips, placed in a holder made from a hollow bamboo with a plug at one end. The suppliant wishing to know the future - the result of a relative's illness, success of a journey, a marriage, a birth, or anything else, bows down before the god's statue, and then taking the holder in his hand shakes it until one of the slips falls out. There is also a register where against each number of the slips stands the prediction, usually written in rude poetry of the Sybilline style, and this register is consulted under the number of the fallen slip to find out the god's opinion. In some temples the predictions are printed on separate sheets of paper, and the priest in charge hands the suppliant the sheet corresponding to his number. Needless to say all this involves the payment of a small sum of money, euphemistically called Hsiang-huo-ch'ien, 'money to keep the incense burning'. Kuan-ti was a general of the Han country in the epoch of the Three Kingdoms, renowned for his integrity and fidelity, and his real name was Kuan Yu. He died in 220, having been taken prisoner and beheaded by the rival country of Wu. He became famous mainly through the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which relates his wonderful adventures, and through the plays derived from the novel. He is always presented as he is described there - dressed in green with a face as red as a jujube fruit. Almost invariably he is accompanied by his equerry, Shou-ts'ang, and his son Kuan P'ing, who stand beside him, and very often in the Temples the statue of his horse is to be seen too. Another exorcist of demons and evil spirits is the Supreme Lord of the Dark Heaven (Hsuan-t'ien Shang-ti) who is also the Regent of Water. He appeared once to the Emperor Hui-tsung in the aspect of a man of colossal height, with loose hair, dressed in a black robe and a golden breast-plate. His naked feet rested on a turtle encircled by a snake. He is still represented with these features o-day. The Eight Immortals, Pa-hsien. The eight Immortals are not, strictly speaking, gods. They are legendary personages who became immortal through the practice of Taoist doctrine, and who have the right to be present at the banquets given by the Lady Wang, wife of the August Personage of Jade. These eight characters have nothing in common, and it is hard to say how the Taoists came to make them into an almost inseparable group. Their name does not appear in folklore until the Yuan dynasty, also called the Mongol dynasty, about the 13th or 14th century, and it was spread, we believe, thanks to the stage. The eight Immortals often accompany the effigy of the god of Long Life. They are: Han Chung-li, usually represented as a man of ripe age with a slight corporation and a careless air. His name is supposed to have been Chung-li and he was believed to have lived in the time of the Han dynasty. His present name is made up of these different elements. Chang-kuo Lao, an old man, known only by his miraculous donkey which could travel several dozens of thousands of leagues in a day, and when at rest could be folded up like a piece of paper. Lan Ts'ai-ho, a street-singer, who, dressed in rags, with one foot bare and the other shod, goes round the streets singing. One day he was carried up to heaven by a stork. T'ieh-kuai Li (Li with the Iron Crutch) was an ascetic instructed by Lao-tzu and another immortal, Master Wang-kiu. One day when he should have gone to Lao-tzu, only his soul went, after he had warned his disciple to watch over his body for seven days, and then to burn it if he did not return. *>/n the sixth day the disciple's mother fell ill, and in his haste to go to her the disciple burnt his master's body. When Li's soul returned there was no longer a body for it to dwell in, so it entered the body of a beggar who had died of hunger. The God is represented as a beggar carrying a large calabash on his back and leaning on an iron crutch. Han Hsiang-tzu was initiated into the doctrine by Lu Tung-pin who is mentioned below. Ts'ao Kuo-chiu converted by Han Chung-li and Lu Tung-pin, Ho Hsien-ku the Immortal Damsel Ho, who went to heaven in full daylight, are represented respectively as a young man in rich clothes with the little headdress of young lords, a man in the costume of a mandarin, and a girl wearing a lotus flower on her shoulder. The last of the eight Immortals, Lu Tung-pin has the greatest number of legends attached to him. They say he likes to walk about among men looking like some ordinary person, and takes the opportunity to punish the wicked and reward the good. Among legends about him the best-known is that of his conversion. Huang-liangmeng, meaning the Dream of the Yellow Sorghum, which also furnished the plot for a play. When he was still only a student Lu Tung-pin stopped at an inn and met an Immortal in disguise with whom he talked for a moment. Then he went to sleep and saw the whole of his future life in a dream. At first he had numerous successes and was loaded with honours, but in the end he endured the worst misfortunes and perished miserably, killed by a brigand. When he awoke Lu Tung-pin decided to renounce the world. Another equally well-known legend tells how he converted the girl-singer, White Peony, after three successive attempts in each of which he came to her in a different form. This Immortal is represented in the dress of a man of letters, carrying a fly-chaser and a sword, the Flying Sword, used by him to kill the Yellow Dragon which he carries on his back. GODS OF THE PROFESSIONS In addition to the gods we have been studying which are the objects of general worship, the Chinese pantheon also included a large number of divinities peculiar to each social class and to each profession. They are innumerable, and it is impossible to mention them all. Following M. Maspero, let us limit ourselves to mentioning a few. Divinities of artisans. Artisans usually choose as their patrons those who are supposed to have been inventors in the different industries. Thus, general Sun Pin, who lived in the fourth century B.C., had his toes cut off, and to hide this deformity hid his feet in sheaths of leather, and thereby became the god of cobblers. Ts'ai Lun, who is supposed to have invented paper in the first century of our era is the god of stationers. A similar honour fell to I-ti who was the first maker of wine, to general Meng T'ien who invented the paint-brush, and to Ts'ang Chieh, who invented writing and is therefore adopted by the public tale-tellers. Others are chosen because they distinguished themselves in their profession, or simply because they practised it. Thus Fan K'uei, who practised the humble occupation of a dog-skinner before he became the right arm of the founder of the Han dynasty, was adopted as their patron by the butchers. The carpenters have a cult for Lu Pan who, so they say, made a marvellous falcon which was able to fly. The thieves chose Sung Chiang, a famous brigand of the twelfth century. Even the prostitutes took it into their heads to look for a patron. And in some parts of China they found one in the person of P'an Chin-lien, a dissipated widow whose father-in-law murdered her in order to end her disorderly behaviour. And then very often artisans content themselves with an anonymous deity, such as the god of the Shuttle for weavers, and the god of Garden Trees for gardeners. Sea gods. Like the rest of the universe, the sea is subject to the supreme authority of the August Personage of Jade, but the Chinese did not make it a divinity, any more than the other elements of Nature. However, they do recognise tutelary gods who protect navigators. The most popular as well as the highest in dignity is the Empress of Heaven, T'ien Hou, who must not be confused with the Queen-Mother Wang, wife of the August Personage of Jade. Before she was promoted to her immortal destiny T'ien Hou was a girl in the island of Mei-chou which was famous for its piety. She had four brothers, all sailors, who sailed on different ships. One day when they were absent at sea the girl fainted and remained a long time unconscious. It was thought she was dead. With the aid of powerful stimulants she was brought back to life, but as soon as she emerged from her lethargy she complained that she had been awakened too soon. A little later three of her brothers returned, and related that they had been attacked by a violent storm during their voyage, and had been saved by their sister who appeared to them during the tempest and saved them from the danger. Only the fourth brother never came home - the girl had been revived before she had time to go to his aid. After her death, which occurred very soon after this miracle, the girl of Mei-chou frequently showed the value of her intervention, either by helping sailors in peril or by helping to capture pirates or even by ending dangerous droughts. For which reason her cult continued to spread. She was first promoted to the title of Princess of Supernatural Favour, then in the sixteenth century was raised to the dignity of Queen, and in the eighteenth century received her definite title of Empress of Heaven. She is represented as a woman sometimes seated on a lotus and sometimes on a throne. She wears the Imperial head dress, and holds either a sceptre or a tablet. Country gods. According to the rites of Confucius, the Chinese recognise a god of the Soil, with whom they associate a god of Ploughing and a god of Harvests. They are impersonal deities, and have no mythic character. Formerly they were solemnly invoked at different periods of the year. The sacrifice which the Emperor offered up to the god of the Soil in spring and autumn was marked by the same pomp as that devoted to the god of Heaven. During the festival of the god of Ploughing the Emperor himself set his hand to the plough, and drew the first furrow. Side by side with these official gods, the peasants venerate other deities of a more popular kind. Prince Millet, Hou Chi, the old god of cereals, has been supplanted by the Celestial Prince Liu, appointed to the functions of superintendent of the Five Cereals. The god Hu-shen is invoked as a protection against hail, since as he wishes he can send or withhold the disaster. Against locusts they call on the Great General Pa-cha, who is represented as a man with a bird's beak and feet, while his hands are tipped with claws and he wears a petticoat. Cattle are under the protection of the god of Cattle-breeding, aided by the King-of-Oxen and the Transcendent Pig. During their lifetime they were both dangerous giants. The King-of-Oxen, who terrified his enemies by his enormous horns and buffalo ears, was yet tamed by the lady Nu-kua, who threaded a miraculous rope through his nose. Equally ferocious and hideous, with his black face, the Transcendent Pig had the impudence to swallow Erh-lang, the nephew of the August Personage of Jade himself, but he regretted it, for Erh-lang slew him. The breeding of silk-worms is under the protection of Lady Horse-head about whom there is a curious legend. Her father was kidnapped by pirates, which grieved her so much she refused to eat. Seeing the girl was in a decline, her mother vowed to marry her to the man who would bring back her husband. She spoke the vow aloud, and it was heard by the horse who was in love with his young mistress. The horse thereupon went off to look for the missing man, found him at last, and brought him home on his back. When he demanded his reward, the father flew into a violent rage, slew the poor animal, skinned him and put the skin to dry in the sun. A few days later as the girl passed it the skin leaped at her and carried her off. But the August Personage of Jade was on the watch. He changed the girl into a silk-worm and soon after took her up to Heaven. Since then the Lady Horse-head ranks among the Sovereign god's concubines. HELL Like all Chinese mythology, Hell is due to a mixture of Taoism and Buddhism, with a special preponderance given to the peculiarities of the Buddhist Hell. The notion of Hell as it exists to-day among the people was, we believe, mainly disseminated by certain passages in novels, among them the Travels in the West, and the Life of Yueh Fei, a general of the Sung epoch, who was assassinated by order of the prime minister, Ch'in Kuei. In the first of these books, the Emperor T'ai-tsung of the T'ang dynasty was wrongly accused of killing the Dragon-King, descended into Hell, and before returning to life on earth passed through certain parts of the dark empire. In the other book a young scholar addresses a complaint to the gods, accusing them of lacking justice because of the death of Yueh Fei. He was summoned before the King of Hell, who showed him round his dominions to prove that there the wicked are punished and the good rewarded. The Yama-Kings, Yen-wang. According to the most wide-spread version there are eighteen Hells, distributed among ten law-courts to which they are attached. These courts are presided over by the Shih-tien Yen-wang, the Kings of the Ten Law-Courts (the word Yen comes from Yama, the Indo-Iranian god of Death), while each Hell is reserved for the tortures which punish well-defined crimes. The first of the Yama-Kings is the supreme master of the world of Hell as well as head of the first Law-Court. He is directly under the August Personage of Jade and the Great Emperor of the Southern Peak. He is popularly known as Yen-wang-yeh (the Lord Yama-King) although in reality the real Yama-King was dismissed by the August Personage of Jade for being too charitable and merciful, and was sent down to head the Fifth Law-Court. The first Yama-King receives the souls of the dead, investigates their actions during their past life, and if necessary sends them to other Kings to be punished. As to the nine others, eight of them are commissioned to punish criminal souls - thus the second King punishes dishonest male and female intermediaries and ignorant doctors, the third punishes bad mandarins, forgers, and back-biters, the fourth punishes misers, coiners, dishonest tradesmen and blasphemers, the fifth punishes murderers, unbelievers and the lustful, the sixth punishes sacrilege, the seventh is reserved for those who violated graves and sold or ate human flesh, the eighth punishes those who were lacking in filial piety, the ninth punishes arson and has for an annexe the Town of those Dying in Accidents, and finally the tenth King is entrusted with the Wheel of Transmigration, and takes care that the soul about to be reincarnated fits properly into the body assigned. Another version says that each of the kings in turn judges the souls which go before each Law-Court, while the King of the Wheel of Transmigration decides on the form in which the soul just judged shall be re-born. Naturally the tortures used in Hell are many and varied, so that each crime has its appropriate punishment, sometimes in a very logical way. Thus, blasphemers have their tongues torn out; misers and lying mandarins are compelled to swallow melted gold and silver, while still more guilty souls are flung on to mountains bristling with swords or plunged into boiling oil, or bound to a large red-hot hollow iron beam, or ground in mills or sawed in halves or cut into little pieces, etc. The Kings of Hell have crowds of satellites to carry out their orders. These satellites are represented as stripped to the waist, with two lumps on their foreheads (which lumps are really meant for horns) and armed with a mace bearing iron spikes or with a trident. The Yama-Kings are represented in the dress of the Emperors, just like the August Personage of Jade and the Emperor of the Eastern Peak. On the images in books of piety they can only be distinguished by the inscription under each of them. The Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha: Ti-tsang Wang-p'u-sa. In this Hell which is peopled by implacable ministers of justice, is there room for mercy? Yes, for the various regions of hell are continually visited by a compassionate and merciful deity, the Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha (in Chinese, Ti-tsang Wang-p'u-sa) whose occupation is to save the souls which come to him. In his human life Ti-tsang was a young Brahman who made a vow to save all souls engulfed in sin. To this end he devoted his successive existences, which were innumerable, and acquired such merit by his spirit of self-sacrifice that in the end Buddha entrusted to him the masses of gods and men 'so that he would not allow them for one day or one night to fall into evil birth'. In China this god is always invoked when somebody dies, so that he can come to the help of the dead person. His name Ti-tsang is a translation of the Sanskrit Ksitigarbha. The images of him show him as a bonze, sometimes with a shaved head like the Hindu bonzes, and sometimes wearing a ceremonial wreath such as is worn by Chinese bonzes. He holds in his right hand the metal wand hung with musical rings such as Chinese monks carry, and his left hand holds the precious pearl which lights the paths of Hell with its glow. Life of the dead in Hell. When the registers of Death and Life kept by the Yama-King show that a man has reached the end of his earthly existence, the Yama-King sends two of his satellites to seize the man's soul and bring it before the infernal Law Courts. These satellites are named Ox-Head and Horse-Face, Niu-t'ou and Ma-mien, and they are represented with the head of the animal whose name they bear. They make their way to the man's house and take him off. And here comes out the value of the Door gods, for it is their duty to see that the warrant of arrest is authentic, and not until that is done will they allow Ox-Head and Horse-Face to enter. They also say that these two satellites are not sent by the Yama-King but by the god of Walls and Ditches, who keeps a register of all the inhabitants in his area. And then again they say, for all the mythology of Hell is rather confused, that the persons charged to bring in the dead are the two Without-Duration, Wu-ch'ang, one of whom is white and the other black, who are called 'the Messengers who seize souls', Kou-hun-shih-che. Their statues are MYTHOLOGY — 399 sometimes to be seen in the temples, and these two personages are represented wearing a long black or white robe which reaches to their feet, a tall pointed hat, a rope round their necks, and their tongues hanging out. But whoever comes for them the souls (which retain their appearance for some time after leaving their robe of flesh) are taken first before the god of Walls and Ditches who puts them through a first series of questions and holds them for forty-nine days, either at liberty, or punishing them with the pillory or beating, according to what the dead person did in his lifetime. Sometimes it happens that owing to a similarity of name or some other error, the wrong soul is brought along; in which case the god allows it to return to earth and to re-enter the body in which it lived. This is perhaps the reason why the Chinese keep the bodies of the dead for several days before they are buried - at least seven, with a maximum of forty-nine. After forty-nine days the god of Walls and Ditches hands over the soul to the Yama-King. He acts as judge, by consulting the register which records all the good or evil actions of this soul, and if necessary sends it before whichever of the Yama-Kings is appointed to punish the crime of which the soul is guilty. As to those souls which have done good deeds, such as those of good sons, of good subjects, believers, and charitable persons etc., they either go to Buddha in the Land of Extreme Felicity in the West, or to the Mountain K'un-lun, the dwelling-place of the Immortals, or else they go straight to the tenth Yama-King to be re-born to another existence. But let us return to the souls of sinners. They go before each of the Yama-Kings in turn, who punishes them for the crime under his jurisdiction. The people believe that persons who have committed very great crimes find that their souls must endure all the tortures of hell without distinction. Such, they say, was the case with the Minister Ch'in Kuei, already mentioned, and doubtless in this way the people work off the hatred they feel for some especially detested personage. After each torture the soul returns to its original form to undergo another. Thus, if it has been cut into little pieces, the pieces all join up again; and if it has been thrown in a cauldron of boiling oil, it becomes living as soon as it is taken out. When the soul has suffered all the punishments due for its sins, it finally goes before the tenth Yama-King who decides in what form, human or animal, it shall be re-born. The Buddhists believe there are six ways of re-birth - three of them are good, birth as a god, as a human being, or as an asura (a kind of demon); and three are bad, birth in hell, birth as a starving demon, birth as an animal. But people believe that birth as a human being is not necessarily a reward, for a man's soul may be condemned to re-birth in the body of a woman (in ancient times women were considered less honourable than men) or in the body of an invalid or a beggar, etc., while at other times a soul may be re-born an animal without having sinned. There are numerous tales on this theme. One of them relates that a man who had borrowed money from someone, died before he could pay his debt. After his death he asked permission of the Yama-King to be re-born as a colt in his creditor's family. Soon after his birth his master sold him for exactly the sum which was owing. The colt died soon after he was sold, and the soul which occupied it returned again to the Law-Courts of Hell to be judged. Another tale, which resembles the 'Dream of the Yellow Sorghum' mentioned in connection with the Immortal Lu Tung-pin, relates that a scholar who had just passed the Imperial examinations was walking in a Temple, and went into the room of a bonze to rest. There he fell asleep, and dreamed that he became a high dignitary and grew rich through telling lies. He then dreamed that he died, and was condemned to drink a quantity of molten gold equivalent to that which he had got unjustly. After this he dreamed that he was re-born in a family of beggars as a girl, and as she grew up was sold to be a scholar's concubine. He did not awake until he had dreamed that he had died a second time. Realising the vanity of this world's honours he retired to the mountain to seek the Path. Souls re-incarnated in an animal do not thereby lose their human feelings. Whether born in the form of a cock or a pig, the soul will feel with human sensibilities all the suffering the animal feels when its throat is cut, and will even suffer from every slice of the knife which cuts it up. But it cannot express its anguish in human language, of which it has lost the use thanks to the Broth of Oblivion, Mi-hun-t'ang. This broth is compounded by the Lady Meng, who lives in a house built just inside the exit from Hell. All souls which pass her door on their way to the Wheel of Transmigration have to drink it willy-nilly. Under its influence the souls forget their former life, their existence in Hell and even their speech. There are legends relating to miraculous births - a child is able to speak as soon as born because the soul inhabiting its body had been successful in escaping the vigilance of the guardians of Hell, and had avoided drinking the Broth of Oblivion. If after drinking this broth a soul is to be re-born in the form of an animal, the satellites of the Law Courts throw on his shoulders 402 — CHINESE MYTHOLOGY the skin of the species of animal to which he will belong, and he is then taken to the Bridge of Pain, K'u-ch'u-ch'iao, which crosses a river of red water. He is thrown off the bridge into the water, and it carries him to his new destiny. They say also that the soul climbs on to the Wheel of Life and Death, which as it turns sends him down to earth. The tale just mentioned says: 'After walking a few paces he saw on a stand a beam of iron several feet in circumference, supporting a great wheel whose dimensions were an unknown number of leagues. Flames of five colours sprang from it, and their glow lit up heaven. He was struck by demons who compelled him to get on the wheel. He had scarcely jumped on it with his eyes shut when the wheel turned under his feet and he felt as if he were falling; he felt coolness all over his body, and opening his eyes he saw that he already had the body of a baby. Another tale, translated by Father Wieger, mentions another case: 'Everything was a confusion to him. His body was buffeted by the wind. Suddenly as he crossed a red bridge he dropped into a lake ten thousand fathoms deep. He felt no pain, but his body became narrow and small and was no longer the same. When he stopped falling his eyes were closed and would not open, and in his ears he heard what seemed to be the sound of the voices of his father and mother. He seemed to be the plaything of a dream.' In this case, as in the tale before, the soul is being born in the body of a child; but of course the impression is quite different and much more unpleasant if it is the body of an animal. Some details of Hell. Hell is a world on its own, with its own towns and country-side. The chief town is Feng-tu, which is entered by the souls of the dead through a big gate called the Gate of Demons, Kuei-men-kuan. The town contains the palaces of the Yama-Kings, the Law Courts, the places set aside for torture as well as the dwellings of the functionaries, the infernal satellites, and the souls waiting to be re-born. On the side opposite the Gate of Demons the town abuts on a river called the River How Nai-ho, crossed by three bridges. One bridge is in gold for the gods, one in silver for the souls of virtuous men, and the last for undeserving or criminal souls. This bridge is several leagues long, but has only three spans, and no rails. Criminal souls of certain categories, such as those who during their life-time profaned clothes of a purple colour, or women who lived dissipated lives, on trying to cross the bridge inevitably fall into the water rushing beneath. They then are preyed upon by bronze snakes and iron dogs who bite them and tear them to pieces. The souls of the dead are not only responsible for their actions in the life they have just left, but also for those of their life before that, if for some reason they have not received punishment for them. Since these souls cannot remember their actions, owing to the Broth of Oblivion which they all drink on passing through Hell, they are when necessary placed in front of a huge mirror, the Mirror of the Wicked, Nieh-ching-t'ai, set up in the Court of the first Yama-King. In this mirror the souls see themselves with the appearance they had in their former life, and so perceive the crime they committed. The Yama-King bases the judgment he gives on this appearance. Not far from the town of Feng-tu is the town of Those who Died in Accidents, Wang-ssu-ch'eng. It is under the ninth Yama-King. Everyone is sent there who dies before the date set down in the Registers of Life and Death, no matter whether they committed suicide or died by accident. The souls of these dead are condemned to live here like starving demons, with no hope of being re-born unless they can find someone to replace them. Thus the soul of a hanged man must bring the soul of another hanged man, and so with a drowned man. To allow them to find a replacement, these souls after three years in Hell are allowed to return freely to earth, to the place where they left their mortal bodies, and there they do all they can to arrange that men passing near the place shall die in the same way. For this reason the Chinese carefully avoid places where there has been a murder, a suicide, or an accident causing a human death, for fear of being made use of by the soul of the dead person. The Chinese Paradise. As we have seen, when the souls of the just are not sent back immediately to a new life by the tenth Yama-King, they go either to the K'un-lun Mountain, the dwelling place of the Immortals, or to the Amitabha Buddha in the Land of Extreme Felicity in the West. The K'un-lun Mountain has a close resemblance to the Olympus of the Greeks, but while the latter situated the dwelling place of their gods in a mountain of their own country, the Chinese placed theirs on a fabulous mountain far away from their land and at the earth's centre. The ruler of this region is no other than the Lady Queen of the West, the Queen-Mother Wang, wife of the August Personage of Jade. The palace is built on the top of the mountain, it has nine storeys and is built entirely of jade. Around the palace are magnificent gardens in which grows the Peach-tree of Immortality. The Immortals live there, in an endless series of amusements and banquets. The only human beings allowed there are those permitted by the gods, as a reward for their virtues, to eat the marvellous fruit of the Peach-tree of Immortality during their earthly life. The other just men admitted to the felicities of eternal life go to the Land of Extreme Felicity in the West. This land, which lies in the fathest west portion of the universe is separated from us by an infinity of worlds like our own. It is a place of all delights, closed in on all sides and embellished by seven rows of terraces with seven rows of trees whose branches are formed of precious stones sounding musically when the wind stirs them. There may be found lakes flowering with lotuses, with a floor of gold sand and banks paved with seven precious stones. Birds with many-coloured plumage and divine voices praise in their songs the five Virtues and the excellent Doctrines. Showers of blossom fall on the ground. In this Eden the righteous pass a life which is piously ordered: 'Every morning at dawn they go to offer flowers to all the Buddhas of other worlds, and they return to their world for meals.' Everything they hear - the song of the birds, the music of the wind in the trees of precious stones - makes them think of Buddha, the Law, and the Community. Their perilous transmigrations are over. Happy are they, who in their life-time fervently called upon Amitabha. At the hour of their death their hearts will not be troubled, for Buddha himself will appear to them. He will receive their souls and place them in the lotuses of the lakes, in which they will remain enclosed until the day comes when, being cleansed from all impurities, they will escape from the opening flower and will go to mingle with the just who inhabit the Land of Extreme Felicity in the West. JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY INTRODUCTION Sources of Japanese Mythology When the ancestors of the Japanese, coming probably from Korea, settled in Japan, they met and made war upon the Ainus whom they drove into the north, while in the southern islands, especially Kyushu, they came upon various tribes whom they subdued and assimilated. They lived in tribes, each one of which had a chief, who, as we shall see later, was often a woman—a characteristic which struck the Chinese when they came into contact with the Japanese, probably about the beginning of our era. Besides China, Japan was also in touch with Korea, and these ancient relations with the Asiatic continent had their influence on the minds of the Japanese people. They also left distinct traces in their mythological tales. The southern tribes, living their seafaring life, also had a share in building up Japanese mythology, and so had the local traditions peculiar to each of the different regions. Oral traditions The interlacing of local myths with foreign legend constitutes the mythology as it has been transmitted to us in the texts, and this is what makes the study such a delicate one. The difficulty is increased by the fact that the mythological tales were closely connected with the origins of the Japanese royal family, and therefore native scholars must not criticise or explain them in too rationalist a way. These myths were preserved by oral tradition, thanks to the Katari-be, a corporation of 'reciters' whose function was to recite these ancient legends during the great Shinto festivals. Japanese scholars believe that this corporation of reciters was closely linked with the priests and priestesses who, during the religious service, related ancient legends about the gods, the tribe or the district. 'The Katari-be seem to have sung their songs at the banquets of the Imperial Court or of the great families, and no doubt the poems described the origin of the gods and the ancestors.' (p. 5, N. Matsumoto, Essai sur la Mythologie Japonaise, Paris, 1928). hi the beginning of the eighth century these tales were used to compile the old histories of Japan, and will be discussed later on. As we have seen, relations between Japan and China and Korea existed at the beginning of our era, as the facts of archaeology testify. We also know that Chinese learning and its form of writing were officially established in the year 405, when the learned Korean Wani arrived. Buddhism was introduced around 522 and after various vicissitudes became the official religion. The Emperor Yomei (585—587) was the first sovereign to accept this foreign religion. In 592 the Empress Suiko came to the throne, and the regent Prince Shotoku was a devout Buddhist. Foreign customs influenced Japanese life so much that during a Shinto ceremony the descendants of the Koreans uttered the words in Chinese. It is natural to assume that the scholars who had to compose the history of Japan and the scribes who had to write it in Chinese must, under the influence of their Chinese education, have modified and embellished the ancient traditions in accordance with Chinese ideas. Written sources. What are these written sources? First of all we have the Kojiki, the book of ancient things or of ancient words. The Emperor Temmu (672—686) realised that the ancient families in their contentions were changing the old traditions in order to provide more support for their rights and privileges. These alterations threatened to harm the reigning family. So in 681 he set up a Committee to put the old traditions into writing, but his death stopped the work. He had also given orders to Hieda-no-Are, one of his attendant ladies who had a very good memory, to learn all the old legends by heart. In 711 the Empress Gemmyo (707—715) ordered O no Yasumaro to collect the stories of Hieda-no-Are, to make a selection, and to set down the ancient traditions in the form of a book. In 712 the work was completed and presented to the Empress under the title of Kojiki. It is curious to find that O no Yasumaro was uncertain how to write the book. He would not write it entirely in Chinese for fear of distorting the character of the tales. But the Japanese syllabary was not then in existence, so like a good Japanese he made a compromise, sometimes writing in Chinese, sometimes using Chinese characters as the phonetic equivalents of Japanese syllables - which caused difficulties in reading the text. It must not be forgotten that the Kojiki was composed partly to settle the Imperial genealogy definitively and to place it above all controversy; and partly to do the same for the Shinto legends, source of the ritual and foundation of the state. In short, 'it was not so much a matter of writing a history as of establishing an orthodoxy.' (Cl. Maitre, La Litterature historique du Japan des origines aux Ashikaga, p. 53, B.E. F.E.O. October — December 1903.) In 714 the same Empress also ordered a national history. Five years later, during the reign of the Emperor Gensho (715 — 726) Prince Toneri and O no Yasumaro compiled in Chinese the annals of Japan, Nihon shoki, (also called Nihongi) and presented them to the Emperor in 720. The first part of these annals, entitled Jindaiki, 'records of the age of the gods', deals with mythological legends and gives the different versions which existed at that time. In 807 Imibe no Hironari wrote and presented to the throne the Kogoshui, 'gleanings of ancient words', to protest against the injuries caused by the Nakatomi family to the Imibe family in the protocol of religious services. Hironari relates several myths to show that the ancient traditions were well kept up in his family which therefore take precedence over the Nakatomi family. These myths are the same as those in the Nihon shoki and the Kojiki. Tales and mythological information are also contained in the liturgical prayers, norito, included in 927 in the eighth volume of Ceremonial, Engishiki, which gives a great deal of information about Shinto matters. Following the Chinese custom, the Japanese government in 713 ordered the local authorities to draw up descriptions of their areas. These books were called Fudoki, but by far the greater number of these monographs have disappeared, and there remain only five Fudoki and fragments of others. They are a valuable source since they give local traditions which are a help to understanding the ancient myths. Mythological tales are also to be found in the Manyoshu, the first great anthology of Japanese poetry, compiled in the eighth century. In the Shojiroku, written in 814, and containing genealogies of the old nobility, there are traces of ancient traditions also. To these written sources must be added the studies in Japanese folklore which during the past thirty years have been carried on with great energy. The numerous publications dealing with local traditions have enabled us to understand the old stories a little better. The studies of folklore in the Ryukyu islands have done much towards our understanding of the part played by women in the ancient traditions (N. Matsumoto 'L'etat actuel des etudes de folklore au Japon' p. 228, No 10. Japan et Extreme Orient, Paris, 1924). These folklore studies are especially interesting for the primitive religion of Japan, for in the course of history official Shinto has been influenced by foreign ideas, and has undergone certain modifications in consequence. THE GREAT LEGENDS The Kami. The Japanese deified the forces of Nature because they felt they were more powerful than themselves, and venerated them under the name Kami. High mountains, tall and ancient trees, rivers, were Kami and so, too, were great men. The word Kami means 'beings more highly placed', those who are venerated, and does not have the meaning of our word, god. The Japanese Kami are often characterised by the epithet chihaya-buru, which may be translated 'powerful'. The gods of Japanese mythology have bodies like those of human beings, and are endowed with all human qualities and defects. The myths speak perfectly frankly of certain exploits of the gods, which English translators prefer to give in Latin. Traditions tell us that the gods possessed two souls, one gentle, nigi-mi-tama, and one violent, ara-mi-tama. The Kami reacted according to the activity of one or the other. At times this soul can leave the body and manifest itself in an object. But the Kami of Japan are not omniscient. Those who live in Heaven do not know what is going on down in the world, and have to send messengers to find out. And they make use of divination to predict the future. The different gods can do good or do evil, but there are no essentially wicked Kami among them. True, when the god Izanagi (of whom we shall speak again) returns from Hell to earth and washes off its impurities, the infernal mud gives birth to Yaso-Maga-Tsu-Bi, the god of multiple calamities; but then there appears Kamu-Nahobi, the god who puts things right again. All wicked things live in Hell, which is under the earth and these demons particularly represent the sicknesses and epidemics and calamities which, afflict the inhabitants of Japan. But they are far less powerful than the Kami, who by the power of magic can conquer them or prevent them from coming out from under the earth. Heaven, Earth, Hell. Japanese mythology divides the Kami into gods of Heaven, Ama-Tsu-Kami, and gods of Earth, Kuni-Tsu-Kami, the latter of which are more numerous and live in the islands of Japan. Still, some divinities rise up frorh earth to heaven, and on the other hand others come down to settle on earth. Heaven, which the Japanese describe by the word Ama, is not a far-off and inaccessible place. Its landscape is the same as Japan's, and it is crossed by the heavenly river, Ama no Gawa, which like Japanese rivers has a very wide bed covered with pebbles. Formerly earth was linked with heaven by a sort of bridge, Ama no Hashidate, which allowed the gods to go to and fro. According to the Tango-fudoki, one day when the gods were all asleep this bridge or stairway collapsed into the sea. This formed the prolonged isthmus situated to the west of Kyoto in the sub-prefecture of Yosa, which is well known as one of the three most beautiful places in Japan. Under the earth lies the kingdom of the dead, which is called 'land of darkness', Yomi-tsu-kuni, or 'land of roots', Ne no Kuni, and also 'the deep land', Soko no Kuni. There are two ways of entering Hell. There is a sloping and very winding road which begins in Izumo province and leads under ground; and the other is situated on the sea shore. It is a bottomless abyss which engulfs all the waters of the sea, and here on the day of grand purification all sins and all impurities are swept down with the waters. Palaces and cottages are built in this subterranean kingdom, the homes of male and female demons—the females are called shiko-me, ugly women, or hisa-me, frowning women. This kingdom of the dead is seldom mentioned in myths, but it is named notably when after the death of his wife Izanagi, the god Izanami goes down under the earth to try to bring her back. Hell is also mentioned in a myth of Izumo province, where it is told how the god O-Kuni-Nushi went down there to consult Susanoo. Japanese mythological traditions have not handed down to us the ancient beliefs about death. 'Probably', says Professor Florenz (Lehrbuch der Religionsgesi'hichte, begrundet von Chantepic de la Saussaye, Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr, 4th new edition, Vol i. article Die Japaner, p. 267), 'the Shintoists felt a horror for everything which concerned death and corpses.' The idea of rewards and punishments after death came into Japan with Buddhist beliefs, but there is no mention of the topic in the old Shinto texts. Origin of the gods and of the world. Japanese mythology tells us that 'at the time when heaven and earth began, three divinities were formed in the plain of high heaven'. They were born of themselves, and then hid. 'Later, when the earth was young and like floating oil. moving like a jelly-fish, from something which sprang up like the shoot of a reed there were born two divinities, and they too hid.' After that came seven generations of gods, and the last couple were called Izanagi and Izanami. It is very probable that these beginnings of Japanese mythology, which show the influence of Chinese ideas, were set down by the compilers to act as an introduction to national traditions. Izanagi and Izanami. Izanagi and Izanami received the order to consolidate and fertilise the moving earth. Standing on the 'floating bridge of heaven' they stirred up the waters of the sea with a lance which the gods had given them. When the water began to coagulate they withdrew the lance, and the drop which fell from its point formed the island of Onokoro, a word which means 'naturally JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY — 407 coagulated'. The two deities then came down on this island, and created a column and a home. Having looked well at one another Izanagi and Izanami decided to come together in order to beget countries. They then walked round the column, Izanagi going round from the left and Izanami from the right. When they met the goddess Izanami exclaimed: 'What a pleasure to meet such a handsome young man!' But the god Izanagi was displeased with this exclamation, for the first words should have been spoken by him since he was the man. From this primordial union there was born 'a leech-child' whom his parents were unwilling to own. So they put him on a raft of reeds and set him adrift. Then the island of Awa was born, but they also refused to recognise it as their child. They went off and consulted the gods, who explained to them that these unfortunate births were the result of Izanami's mistake in speaking first to her future husband and that they must walk round the column again and carry out the rite correctly. This the god Izanagi and the goddess Izanami did, and so gave birth to the many islands which constitute Japan as well as numerous gods the god of Wind, of Trees, of Mountains etc. The last-born was the god of Fire, whose birth burned the goddess Izanami and caused her dreadful suffering. From her vomit, her urine, and her excrement other gods were born; and then she died. Izanagi lamented, and his tears gave birth to the goddess, Moaning-river. Furious with the baby who had caused the goddess's death, Izanagi picked up his sword and cut off the child's head. Drops of his blood, trickling down the blade, fell on the ground, and gave birth to eight different gods; and eight other deities symbolising different mountains came from various parts of the body. Izanagi's descent into Hell. Izanagi was inconsolable for his wife's death, and went down to Hell and his wife came to meet him, but refused to return with him because she had already tasted the food of Hell. She suggested that she should go and discuss the question with the god of Hell, and begged her husband not to look inside the house. But the god became impatient and took the risk of following her. He broke off the 'made tooth' of his comb, that is. one of the two at the end of a comb, lighted it for a torch, and went into the palace. He found Izanami's body decomposing and full of worms, and watched over by eight Thunders. He fled in horror. Izanami called after him, 'You have humiliated me!' and set the ugly-girls-of-hell at him. Izanagi defended himself with various magical methods. So the goddess then sent eight Thunder gods and the soldiers of Hell. When he reached the end of the slope to Hell, Izanagi picked three peaches and threw them at the soldiers of Hell, who fled, and then blocked the entrance to Hell with a huge boulder. Izanami had pursued him, and found herself on the other side of the bouider. The two gods swore they would divorce, and so parted. The god Izanagi felt sullied by this contact with the world of the dead, and went off to the island of Tsukiji where he purified himself at the mouth of the little river Tachibana in Hyuga province. He threw away his stick, and from this stick was born the God-set-up-at-cross-roads. Then he took off his clothes and threw them away, each one of them producing a deity. He then dived into the river, and the impurities he had brought back from Hell gave birth to two gods of different ills. To cure these ills Izanagi gave birth to two gods who set the ills right, and to the 'sacred goddess'. Izanagi then dived into the sea, and from this bath arc derived all the various sea gods. He washed his left eye, and so gave birth to the great goddess Amaterasu, goddess of the Sun; he then washed his right eye and brought into the world the goddess of the Moon, Tsukiyomi. Then he washed his nose, and gave birth to the god Susanoo. Izanagi ordered his elder daughter Amaterasu to rule the plain of Heaven, giving her his necklace of jewels. To the god of the Moon he entrusted the kingdom of night, and to the god Susanoo the plain of the seas. The goddess of the Sun and the god of the Moon obeyed the order of their father Izanagi, and took possession of Heaven and of the kingdom of night. Susanoo alone did not leave, and stayed where he was, weeping and groaning. Izanagi asked him the reason for these laments, and Susanoo said he wanted to go to the kingdom of his dead mother. The god Izanagi grew angry and drove him away, and Susanoo then said he wanted to say farewell to his elder sister before going down to the world underground. Scholars who make a study of mythology have found certain resemblances between- the myths about Izanagi and Izanami and those of Polynesia, for instance. Also it is highly probable that the Chinese legend of Pan-Ku, whose left eye became the sun and his right eye the moon, was grafted on to an ancient tradition by the authors of the Kojiki and the Nihon shoki. As Mr N. Matsumoto has very rightly pointed out in his Essai sur la Mythologie Japonaise, the whole collection of these ancient traditions indicates that Susanoo represents the gods of Izumo province, and Amaterasu those of Yamato. The two tribes of these regions were enemies. The Imperial family, as we shall see later on, had the Sun goddess as an ancestor, and by recording the ancient traditions hoped to establish the supremacy of Yamato, which at the time when these texts were put down was already a historical fact. By a comparison of ancient texts and from the study of folklore, not only of Japan proper but of the Ryukyu islands, we observe that although Amaterasu was the Sun goddess she also has the character of a priestess, which is very understandable seeing that in ancient Japan 'the notions of god and priest were confounded', and consequently the lives of priests and priestesses influenced the building up of the myths. We shall see in myths to follow that Amaterasu, though ; Sun goddess, wove the gods' clothes, and we know that the Shinto f priestesses were employed in weaving garments before the great ceremonies. The myths which tell us of the struggle between Amaterasu and her brother Susanoo probably are a reflection of the rivalry between a brother and his priestess-queen sister. On this rivalry we have the testimony of the Chinese historians who, in the annals of the Wei dynasty (220—264), relate that after the death of the priestess-queen Himeko of the kingdom of Yamato, a younger brother who had helped her was put on the throne, and that this succession led to civil wars. Peace was not restored until the eldest daughter of the dead queen ascended the throne. Susanoo and Amaterasu. Let us return to the mythological stories of the Kojiki and Nihon shoki. Susanoo went up to Heaven to see his elder sister, but he made such a noise, shaking the mountains and rivers and making the earth quake, that the goddess thought it as well to take precautions in meeting him. So she slung a quiver on her back, and placed before her a bow whose string she vibrated. When she asked him why he had come, he said he had no evil intent, and had come simply to say good-bye to her before going to the distant land where his mother was. The Sun goddess asked her brother for proofs of his goodwill. Susanoo proposed that each of them should create children — his would be boys and that would prove the sincerity of his intentions. Amaterasu took her brother's sword, broke it in three pieces and, after having chewed them, blew a light mist from her mouth which gave birth to three goddesses. Susanoo asked his sister for the five strings of jewels she was wearing and, after cracking them between his teeth, blew a light mist from his mouth and gave birth to five masculine deities. Amaterasu declared they were her children because they had been created from jewels which belonged to her. It is interesting to note that in the historic epoch the eight children of Amaterasu and Susanoo were venerated as the eight 'princes' and considered as ancestors. The eldest male was the ancestor of the Emperors, and the others of the great families. Susanoo was so pleased with his success that he lost all self-control. In the impetuosity of his victory he destroyed the rice-fields prepared by Amaterasu, filled in the irrigation ditches, and deposited excrement in the Temples built for the festival of First-fruits. The Sun goddess made excuses for her brother's misdeeds, but he continued them. One day when the goddess Amaterasu was weaving the gods' clothes in the sacred house Susanoo made a hole in the roof of the house, and threw down a piebald horse which he had already flayed. This terrible and unexpected apparition caused such a disturbance that one of the weaving women pricked herself with the shuttle and fell dead. The goddess Amaterasu was terrified and hid in a rocky cave of Heaven, blocking the entrance with a boulder. The world was plunged into darkness. Some scholars have interpreted this disappearance of the sun as an allusion to an eclipse, but we are in agreement with Mr N. Matsumoto in his interpretation of the myth as the beginning of winter, since that event takes place after the festival of First-fruits. Amaterasu's return. The darkness which covered the world greatly aided the wicked gods in their doings, and caused consternation among the good gods. The eight hundred myriads of gods all assembled in the dry bed of a river, to decide on what measures should be taken to bring back the Sun goddess. They approached the god 'Hoard-thoughts', and in accordance with his advice they collected cocks whose crow precedes the dawn. They gave orders for the making of a mirror and strings of jewels, which they hung on the branches of the Sakaki tree (Cleyera japonica) which they also decorated with cloth streamers. They uttered the ritual words. The goddess Ama no Uzume decked herself out with different plants, gathered some bamboo leaves, and then mounted a tub turned upside down which was placed outside the entrance to the cave. She then began to dance, drumming with her feet on the sounding tub. Carried away by divine ecstasy she took off all her clothes, and the eight hundred myriads of gods all roared with laughter. The Sun goddess hearing the crowing of the cocks, then the noise of Ama no Uzume dancing, and then the burst of laughter from the gods, was puzzled and asked the reason for all these noises. Ama no Uzume replied that the gods were rejoicing because they now had a better goddess than Amaterasu. Urged by her curiosity the Sun goddess looked out and saw the mirror which they had set up, and, much interested by its reflection, she came a little way out of the cave. The god of Force who had hidden himself close by seized her hand and forced her to come out completely. Then a rope was stretched in front of the cave to prevent Amaterasu from going back into it, and once more the world was lit up by the rays of the Sun goddess. The gods decided to punish Susanoo and forced him to pay a heavy fine. Then they cut off his beard and moustache, tore off the nails from his fingers and toes, and kicked him out of heaven. We have already stressed the particular character of the Sun goddess's retreat after the festival of First-fruits. The obscene dance of the goddess Ama no Uzume is another sign that these traditions have an agricultural significance, for 'in primitive religion obscenity has always an agricultural significance, looking to the fertility of the fields', and the gods' laughter means that the life which had seemed extinct is about to be re-born. (P. L. Couchoud, Le mythe de la danseuse obscene. Mercure de France, 15 August 1929.) Susanoo's exploits. When the god Susanoo was driven out of heaven, ne came down to Izumo province. We have already said that the myths connected with this god come from that region. It must be also noted that Susanoo was not an essentially evil god. His character was such that it displayed itself in wicked deeds when he was controlled by his wicked soul, Ara-mi-tama, and in good deeds when .his peaceful soul, Nigi-mi-tama, was in the ascendant. He was a fertility god, closely linked with agricultural beliefs. At one and the same time he is a god of Thunder, Storm and Rain. For this reason he is associated with snakes, for in ancient Japan the snake was considered as the god of Thunder. Mr N. Matsumoto points out that the main descendants of the god Susanoo are related either to water, thunder or the snake. The following pages from the Nihon shoki and the Kojiki relate myths about the god Susanoo. When he came down to Izumo he met an old man and an old woman who were crying beside a girl. Susanoo asked the reason for these tears. The old man told him that he had had eight daughters and that every year a snake with eight heads from the Koshi district had come and devoured one of his daughters. Seven already had been eaten, and now the snake was coming to devour the last. Susanoo told them he was the brother of Amaterasu, and asked them to give him the girl. The old parents gladly agreed. Susanoo changed the girl into a comb which he stuck in his hair. Then he had eight bowls prepared and filled them with rice wine. When the terrible snake appeared it was attracted by the scent of the wine, and each head made for one of the bowls. The snake got drunk and went to sleep. Susanoo drew his sword, and cut the monster to pieces. In the middle of the snake's tail he found a wonderful sword which he presented to his sister the Sun goddess. In later stories this sword is given the name Kusanagi, and was transmitted to our own times as one of the three emblems of Imperial power It is kept in the Temple of Atsuta, near the town of Nagoya. Once he had got rid of the Snake, Susanoo built himself a palace at Suga, and lived there with his new wife. From this union was born the god O-Kuni-Nushi, who afterwards became Lord of Izumo. Adventure of O-Kuni-Nushi. According to ancient traditions, O-Kuni-Nushi was a god of medicine connected with sorcery. The invention of therapeutic methods was attributed to him. The legend of the white hare of Inaba tells us that a skinned hare appealed to the eighty gods, brothers of O-Kuni-Nushi, and they advised it to bathe in the sea and then dry itself in the wind. The poor animal suffered dreadfully. It then met O-Kuni-Nushi, who felt sorry for its sufferings, and told it to wash in fresh water and then to roll in the pollen of sedges spread on the ground. The hare was completely cured, and when returning thanks declared that the princess Yakami would go to O-Kuni-Nushi, and not to his brothers. O-Kuni-Nushi's brothers were very angry at this, and by various subterfuges they managed to kill him, but he was resurrected through the intercession of his mother with the goddess Kami-Musubi. O-Kuni-Nushi once more became a strong young man. To save him from the rage of his brothers, his mother sent him to the underworld, to the god Susanoo. There he met Suseri-Hime, the god's daughter. She fell in love with him, and they were united. Susanoo received him, but put him to sleep in a room full of snakes. O-Kuni-Nushi was saved by a scarf which had been given him by Suseri-Hime. The next night he was sent to sleep in a room full of centipedes and wasps, but Suseri-Hime had given another scarf which protected him from the centipedes and wasps, and O-Kuni-Nushi came through that test unscathed. Then Susanoo shot a hissing arrow into the middle of a vast meadow and sent 412 — JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY O-Kuni-Nushi to look for it. When O-Kuni-Nushi was in the middle of the meadow Susanoo set fire to the grass, but O-Kuni-Nushi was saved by a mouse which showed him an underground room in which to shelter, and brought him the arrow. The god Susanoo then felt some confidence in him and, after asking-O-Kuni-Nushi to wash his hair, went to sleep. O-Kuni-Nushi took advantage of Susanoo's sleep to tie the god's hair to the rafters of the house, then put his wife Suseri-Hime on his back and fled, taking also the great god's sword, bow, arrows, and his harp, Koto. But the Koto brushed against a tree and awoke Susanoo, who started up and so pulled down the house. While Susanoo was freeing his hair O-Kuni-Nushi made good use of the time and had got far away when the god started in pursuit. On the slope of Hell Susanoo saw the abductor of his daughter in the distance, and advised him to fight his brothers with the sword and bow and shatts he had taken. In this way, he asserted, O-Kuni-Nushi would conquer them and reign over the world. He then asked him to make Suseri-Hime his chief wife, and to build his palace at the foot of mount Uka. The myths about O-Kuni-Nushi then speak of a god who arrived in a drifting boat. This was Sukuna-Bikona, the son of the goddess Kami-Musubi, who was well received by O-Kuni-Nushi, and together they fortified the region. One day the god Sukuna-Bikona went to cape Kumanu, and disappeared in the direction of the region of Tokyo. O-Kuni-Nushi was in consternation when he found he was alone, and said to himself: 'Now I am quite alone to keep order in this land. Is there nobody to help me?' At that moment the sea was lit up with a divine light, and a god said: 'How could you rule this country if I were not at your side?' O-Kuni-Nushi asked the god who he was. 'I am your protecting deity, and I wish to be worshipped on mount Mimoro, where I live.' O-Kuni-Nushi worshipped this god, whose name is Omiwa. The first part of official history related in the Nihon shoki ends with these legends of O-Kuni-Nushi. The narrative then comes back to the Sun goddess and her grandson, the ancestor of the Emperors of Japan. The events told in this second part all took place on earth or in the kingdom of the Sea god. Amaterasu and Ninigi. Amaterasu decided to send her son Ame-no-Oshido-Mimi down to earth to reign over it as sovereign. But before leaving, the god looked at the earth from the floating bridge of Heaven, saw it was full of disturbances, and refused to go. The eight hundred myriads of gods were then ordered to meet, and the god-who-hoards-thoughts was told to work out a plan. After consultation the gods decided to send down the god Ame-no-Hohi to find out what was happening in the 'middle country of the land of reeds'. Three years passed without any news from him, so the gods sent down his son, with the same result. At last they chose Ame-no-Wakahiko, renowned for his courage, and gave him a divine bow and divine arrows. When he got down to earth the young god married O-Kuni-Nushi's daughter, Shitateru-Hime, and began to reign over the land. Eight years passed without any news of him reaching the gods. So the gods sent down to earth a pheasant to ask Ame-no-Wakahiko what he had been doing all this time. The pheasant settled on a tree opposite the door of the god's house, and one of the women said it was a bird of evil omen. So Ame-no-Wakahiko shot a divine arrow which pierced the bird, made a hole in heaven, and fell at the feet of Amaterasu and Taka-Mi-Musubi. Seeing the blood-stained arrow and recognising it as one he had given to Ame-no-Wakahiko, the god cursed it and flung it back. The arrow, hurled across the heavens, struck Ame-no-Wakahiko in the heart and killed him. The widow lamented and wept so bitterly that the gods of heaven heard her, and Ame-no-Wakahiko's parents came down to be present at his funeral. Ame-no-Wakahiko's funeral rites are described in great detail and are of much interest since this is the oldest document we possess about Shinto rites. The gods then sent to Izumo two gods who informed O-Kuni-Nushi that the Sun goddess had sent them to subjugate the land. O-Kuni-Nushi consulted his two sons. The elder accepted Amaterasu's suzerainty. The younger tried to resist, but was conquered by the power of the heavenly envoys and fled, promising however that he would not undertake anything against the Sun goddess. The gods returned to heaven to announce Izumo's submission. Meanwhile Amaterasu had a grandson, the god Ninigi, and decided to send him to earth. Ninigi received the sword Kusanagi which Susanoo had found in the tail of the eight-headed snake, the heaven- ly jewels, and the mirror which had caused Amaterasu to leave the cave, and as companions several deities, among them the goddess Ama-no-Uzume. When giving Ninigi the mirror, his grandmother Amaterasu said: 'Adore this mirror as our souls, adore it as you adore us.' The jewels, the sword Kusanagi and the mirror became the three emblems of the Imperial power. The god Ninigi and his suite descended on mount Takachiho in the province of Hyuga, and built a palace on cape Kasasa. Japanese and Western scholars have had much discussion about this passage in the Japanese texts. Why should the grandson of the Sun goddess arrive at the island of Kyushu instead of at Izumo? Mr N. Matsumoto (op. cit. p. 104) quotes the opinion of a Japanese scholar, Professor K. Shiratori, who thinks the choice of the place may be explained by 'the political object of the compilers of these myths, who wanted to bring the hostile tribes of the island of Kyushu under the Imperial power'. That is perfectly comprehensible, given the state of mind in which the compilation of the Kojiki and Nihon shoki was undertaken. Ninigi's sons. The god Ninigi married Kono-Hana-Sakuya-Hime, daughter of the Mountain god, but as she conceived on the first night he doubted her fidelity. The princess Kono-Hana-Sakuya was angry at this attitude. She built a doorless house and at the moment of birth set fire to the house, swearing that the child would perish if it were not Ninigi's. She brought forth three sons: Hoderi, Hosuseri and Hikohohodemi. Afterwards the texts speak of only two brothers. Hosuseri specialised ih fishing, while Hikohohodemi became a clever hunter. One day the brothers tried to change over their occupations, but perceived that the results were bad. Hosuseri returned the bow and arrows to his younger brother, and asked for his fish-hook, but Hikohohodemi had lost the real fish-hook and gave him another one. Hosuseri refused to take it, as well as other hooks Hikohohodemi offered him. Hikohohodemi was grieved at the loss, and went down into the depths of the Ocean to visit the palace of the Sea god. He attracted the attention of the god's daughter, who presented him, and became his wife. He told his story to the Sea god, and the hook was found in the mouth of a red fish. Although life in the palace of the Sea god was very pleasant, Hikohohodemi persisted in wishing to return home. The sea god gave him two jewels, one which makes the tide rise, and another which makes it fall. His wife promised to rejoin him after a certain time. When Hikohohodemi got back he returned the fishhook to his brother, but as he continued to be a nuisance Hikohohodemi made use of the jewel which brings the high tide. The elder brother, finding himself covered with the sea, begged his pardon and promised to serve him. Hikohohodemi then threw into the sea the jewel which causes the low tide, and set his elder brother free. The Sea god's daughter kept her word and rejoined Hikohohodemi. She told him she was about to have a child, but added that he must not be present at the birth nor try to watch her. Urged by curiosity Hikohohodemi looked between the walls of the hut, and saw his wife take the form of a dragon. She left the child with her husband and returned to her father the Sea god, but sent her sister to look after the child. This sister became the child's wife, and one of their sons, who received the names of Toyo-Mike-Nu and Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Hiko, is famous in history under his posthumous name of Jimmu-Tenno — he was the founder of the Imperial line of Japan. From this time the history of Japan officially began, but for a long time it was sown with ancient legends—the rivalry between Yamato and Izumo continued, and the wives of several Emperors were princesses of Izumo. THE GODS Ancient Japanese texts often speak of 'the eight hundred myriads of gods', a scarcely exaggerated number when you remember that every region, every town, every village and the most humble inhabitant possessed a local Kami and his attendants. In addition, as we have seen, every object whose shape or size differed from the normal — such as rocks, old trees etc. — was venerated as a Kami. Even in modern Japan we see not only the great Temples and Shinto shrines with torii, typical entrances, before the sanctuaries, but in the forests and on the mountains the traveller often comes upon small sanctuaries, hokora, dedicated to a local Kami or to a large rock or a very old tree. The Sun goddess, Amaterasu. With so many deities, the established mythology is dominated by the Sun goddess, Amaterasu, who is worshipped not only as a heavenly body but as a spiritual divinity and the ancestor of the Imperial family. The Japanese people also venerate the sun which brings warmth and the harvest; and salute it in the morning by clapping hands. Amaterasu's chief shrine is at Ise. At first the goddess was worshipped in the Imperial palace itself. But, with the evolution of the Imperial power this proximity threatened difficulties, for the influence of the priestesses exercised through oracles deprived the Emperor of complete liberty. The Emperor Sujin (97—30 B.C.) decided to build a special sanctuary for the solar emblems, and appointed his own daughter to their worship. A little later the Emperor Suinin (29 B.C. to A.D. 70) handed over the cult of the goddess to his daughter Yamato-Hime. Looking for a suitable site she came to Ise province, and there, in accordance with an oracle of Amaterasu she built the sanctuary. Since that remote date the Shrine of Amaterasu has always been at Ise, where it is periodically restored but always By exactly copying the ancient shrine; and thanks to this, the style of the ancient architecture has remained until our own times. This shrine houses the sacred mirror which is the Shintai of the deity, that is to say the object into which the goddess's spirit enters to be present at the ceremonies and to listen to the prayers addressed to her.lt is the octagonalmirror which was made to bring Amaterasu out of the cave in which she was hiding. In the grounds attached to the Shrine at Ise are a large number of cocks which are considered as birds sacred to the sun because they salute the dawn. In ancient times a crow with several feet, Yata-Garasu, was also venerated as the messenger of Amaterasu. Very probably this belief was of foreign origin. The kite and the heavenly arrows are also considered to be emblems of the sun by the Shintoists. Takami-Musubi. Although the Sun goddess occupied the first place in the official mythology she was not considered as an omnipotent deity. Thus, when Amaterasu called an assembly of the gods to appoint messengers to Izumo, the god Takami-Musubi was named with her; and legend also mentions him as being beside the goddess when Ninigi was sent down to earth. The Sun goddess does not act on her own will and pleasure, but asks advice of the other deities. She reigns over the high heavenly plain, but has to obtain her information about the earth from intermediaries. The seas and the world underground are not subject to her. We have already seen that the legends about the Sun contain traces of the lives of Shinto priestesses and their occupations. Amaterasu herself officiated in heaven, and carried out the ceremony of the new harvest, while she also wove divine garments. Up till our own times, in April and September, the festivals of divine garments were celebrated in the great Ise Shrine. Before dawn the pilgrims make their way to the sea-shore of Futami at Ise where two rocks, one large and one small, stand out of the sea, and are called 'the Wedded Rocks', Myoto-Ga-Seki. There is a place on this beach where the sun may be seen rising between these two rocks. The pilgrims adore the rising Sun by clapping their hands and piously saluting. Wakahiru-Me. Amaterasu is far from being the only deity. The ancient texts mention others. Wakahiru-Me, Amaterasu's younger sister, according to the Nihon shoki, was weaving divine garments with her when Susanoo threw down the flayed horse into the room where they were sitting, and thus she is probably also a solar deity. Motoori Norinaga (1730—1801), the learned commentator of the Kojiki, interprets the name Waka, young, hiru, sun, and me, a woman, as meaning that this young sister of Amaterasu was a personification of the rising or morning sun. Hiruko. According to a variant reading quoted in the Nihon shoki, the god Hiruko was born after the sun and moon, and his name is interpreted as 'the childleech'. Professor Florenz (op. cit. p. 286) considers this etymological explanation defective, and thinks that Hiruko was most probably a male solar deity thrown into the background by the cult of Amaterasu, the protecting divinity of the conquering Yamato tribe. In other texts we come upon a god whose name may be abridged to Nigihaya-hi, meaning 'swift-and-gentle- sun', that is the early morning sun. By a comparison of the texts we can determine that this solar god was the brother of Ninigi, the grandson of Amaterasu. The numerous compilations of the ancient texts were an attempt to build up a mythological whole from the ancient traditions and names of gods which had been preserved; and in so doing have greatly confused the origins of Japanese beliefs. Professor G. Kato, in his book on Shinto (Annales du Musee Guimet, vol. L, p. 135, 1931), quotes a typical case where four divinities have been arbitrarily amalgamated into one. It must also be remembered that the compilers of the Nihon shoki and Kojiki in building up an orthodoxy coolly dethroned or debased many divinities and tended to simplify greatly the original complicated structure according to their own personal beliefs and preferences. Tsuki-Yomi, god of the Moon. The cult of the moon has been greatly modified in the course of ages. The ancient texts inform us that Izanagi gave birth to the moon by washing his right eye. His Japanese name, Tsuki, moon, and Yomi, counter, that is to say, 'counter-of-the-months,' links him with the primitive calendar (N. Matsumoto, op. cit. p. 16, note i). In Japan the lunar divinity is masculine, and in the ancient poems of the Manyoshu anthology his name is followed by the word Otoko, man, to stress his masculine character. This god has a shrine at Ise as well as at Kadono, and in both these sanctuaries is a mirror in which the god may manifest himself. It is curious to note that the Chinese picture of the hare in the moon preparing the drug of immortality has passed into the iconography of modern Japanese with certain modifications. The Japanese represent the white disk of the moon with a rabbit or a hare pounding rice in a mortar. This symbol is based on a pun. In Japanese, Mochi-zuki means to pound rice for cakes, and Mochi-zuki also means the full moon. Although the ideograms with which the two words are written are entirely different, the identity of the consonants was enough to produce the image. The stars. As to the stars Mr G. KLato says: 'They never had a prominent place in early Shinto beliefs, although they included the god of evil, Amatsu-Mikaboshi, "the-august-star-of-heaven", in other terms Ama-no-Kagaseo, "the-brilliant-male".' Later on, due to the influence of Chinese and Buddhist beliefs, the Japanese god of stars was identified with the Pole Star, Myo-ken (in Sanskrit, Sudarsana), and finally with Ama-no-Minakanushi-no-kami, the-Divine-Lord-of-the-middle-heavens, the supreme heavenly deity (G. Kato, op. cit. p. 23 — 24). The legend of the annual meeting of the star of the Cowherd and the star of the Spinning Maiden over the Milky Way was brought to Japan during the reign of the Empress Koken (749—759) and utilised to found the festival of Tanabata, celebrated on the seventh evening of the seventh moon-whence the name Tanabata, which means seventh evening. (M.G. Cesselin, les 'Sekku' ou quelques fetes populaires, IV. Tanabata no Sekku, p. 194, No 10, April 1906. Melanges japonais, Tokyo.) Storm and thunder deities. It is curious to note that in later belief the god Susanoo was linked with the lunar cult, whereas in the myths generally he is rather the Storm or Thunder god and seems closely associated with agricultural rites. Mr N. Matsumoto (op. cit. p. 37 and following) has devoted to him a most interesting study, where he points out that the relationship between the ceremonies of expulsion and purification led, in the Middle Ages, to the god Susanoo being considered as the god of plague, and confused with a god of foreign origin, Gozu-Tenno, the Ox-headed-heavenly-King. The ancient texts also speak of the Thunder deities at the death of Izanami, whose body was guarded by eight Thunders who afterwards went in pursuit of Izanagi. But these thunders do not so much represent heavenly thunder, as the underground thunders which are so common in a volcanic country like Japan. The god Take-Mika-zuchi, who was sent by the other gods to subjugate Izumo province, is also considered a god of Thunder, who pursued the son of O-Kuni-Nushi to lake Suwa and conquered him. Aji-suki-takahikone, another son of the same god, is also a Thunder god. At his birth he cried and screamed, and they calmed him by carrying him to the top and then to the bottom of a ladder. 'In the Japanese mind the ladder is used to get to heaven, so this episode seems to allude to one of the characteristics of the Thunder, which is to come and go between heaven and earth. He was also placed in a boat which sailed between the eighty islands. The boat was the means by which the Thunder god connected heaven and earth (N. Matsumoto, op. cit. p. 57—58). Kami-Nari, the god of Rolling-Thunder, is greatly venerated, and many sanctuaries are devoted to him. Trees split by lightning, Kantoki no ki, are considered as sacred, and it is forbidden to cut them down. In the Annals of Japan for the year 618 of our era may be read the story of the official, Kawabe-no-Omi, who was ordered by the Emperor to cut down trees for the construction of ships. Among the trees was one which had been hit by lightning. The official made offerings to it and then gave orders for it to be cut down, but scarcely had the wood-cutters approached the tree when a terrible storm, with rain and thunder, broke over the forest. A sword plays the part of Shintai in the shrines which 416 — JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY are consecrated to Kami-Nari, and is probably a symbol of lightning. The most venerated of the sanctuaries of Kami-Nari is situated at Kashima. Rain gods. Rain also had its special gods, such as the god Taka-Okami who lives on mountains, and Kura-Okami who dwells in valleys and can cause snow as well as rain. Fujiwara-no-Kisaki, a concubine of the Emperor Temmu, says in effect in her poems that she has offered prayers to the god Kura-Okami so that he will send down snow-flakes on the Imperial palace (Manyoshu, volume n, poem 19). In the description of Izumo province, it is stated that to the west of mount Kaminabi the wife of the god Aji-Suki-Taka-Hikone gave birth to the god Taki-Tsu-Hiko (Prince-cataract), and advised him to build a temple there. The god is a rock, and if prayers are said to it during a drought it sends rain. The ceremonial of the Engi period (901—922) enumerates the ninety-five shrines to which in case of drought the Emperor sent messengers to ask the gods for rain. But Japanese fanners have forgotten the old gods, and when there is a drought they get up a procession preceded by a Shintoist priest carrying the Gohei, the symbol of divinity. The priest is followed by a peasant blowing in a conch, and then comes a dragon made of bamboo and plaited straw. The procession is closed by peasants carrying banners on which are written prayers to bring rain. The peasants follow in a crowd, beating drums and making a noise. The procession makes its way to a lake or a river, where the image of the dragon is dipped in the water. Gods of wind. The Wind gods appear at the beginning of the mythological narrative of Nihon shoki. From the breath of the god Izanagi came the Wind god, Shina-Tsu-Hiko, and to blow away the mist which covered the land the same god created the goddess, Shina-to-Be. This god and goddess are also mentioned in an incantation, Norito, in which it is said that the Wind god fills the void between heaven and earth, and bears up the earth. Besides these two chief deities, there is another couple of Wind gods—the god Tatsuta-Hiko and the goddess Tatsuta-Hime. They are named from Tatsuta, the place where their sanctuary is built. They are prayed to for good harvests. Fishermen and sailors were among their fervent worshippers, and wore their amulets to protect themselves against storms. In one of the variants of the Nihon shoki it is said that the body of Ame-no-Wakahiko was brought down to earth from the plain of heaven by the Whirlwind god, who is named Haya-ji or Haya-Tsu-muji-no-Kami. Ryobu-Shinto (that is to say, the Japanese form of Buddhism which considered that all the gods of the Japanese pantheon were merely local manifestations of Buddhist divinities) has pictorially represented the Wind god in a terrible shape, carrying on his back a great bag from which he released the wind. The Thunder god was depicted among drums. Earthquake gods. Among the scourges of Nature, earthquakes could not fail to impress the Japanese, but we find no mention of an Earthquake god. Not until the year 599 of our era, after an earthquake which no doubt was particularly violent, was there instituted a cult of the Earthquake god, Nai-no-Kami; and rather more than a century later several sanctuaries were dedicated to this formidable deity. Mountain gods. In a volcanic country like Japan it was natural that the mountains should become gods. The extinct volcano Fujiyama is the most revered, and the sanctuary of the goddess Sengen-Sama is built on its peak. During the summer numbers of pilgrims climb the sacred mountain to worship the rising sun. At one time women were forbidden to go to the top, because they were then considered impure, but this restriction no longer exists. In addition to mount Fuji there are many other sacred mountains with shrines dedicated to different gods. In Shinano province there are Ontake-San and mount Nantai near lake Chuzenji; and in southern Japan, in Higo province, there is mount Aso, etc. In Japanese mythology we find the name of a deity O-Yama-Tsu-Mi, chief go'd and lord of mountains. He was born when Izanagi cut the Fire god into five pieces. The second god was Naka-Yama-Tsu-Mi, that is, the god of mountain slopes. The third was Ha-Yama-Tsu-Mi, the god of the lower mountain slopes; the fourth, Masaka-Yama-Tsu-Mi, the god of the steep slope; and the fifth Shigi-Yama-Tsu-Mi, the god of the mountain foot. In the Kojiki there are mentioned the god of mountain slopes, Saka-no-Mi-Wo-no-Kami, and a couple of gods of mountain minerals, Kana-Yama-Hiko and Kana-Yama-Hime River gods. Rivers also had their gods called by the generic name Kawa-no-Kami (Kawa, river; Kami, god; no, of) and well-known rivers each had in addition their own god, greatly venerated on account of the frequent floods. In the year A.D. 22, the river Yamato was in flood and burst its banks; in a dream the Emperor saw a god who told him that the River god demanded a sacrifice of two men. A man was sacrificed and the banks repaired, while the second victim escaped by a subterfuge. The considerable number of persons drowned in Japanese rivers gave birth to the dwarf Kappa, who by his magic power draws people down into the water. The only way to avoid his clutch is to bow low to him, then he bows and pours all the water there is from a hole in his skull. Deprived of this water the Kappa can do no harm. There is also a god of river-mouths, called Minato-no-Kami. Springs and wells also have their gods. The god of wells is named Mii-no-Kami, he who causes water to flow from the earth. In the Kojiki we read that Yakami, one of the wives of O-Kuni-Nushi, gave birth to a son, and from fear of the chief wife hid the child in the fork of a tree, whence his other name: Ki-no-Mata-No-Kami. When a new well is begun there is a special ceremony of purification, and when the well is finished a little salt is thrown in as purification offering. Sea gods. The sea has several gods. The greatest is O-Wata-Tsu-Mi, also known as the Old Man of the Tide, Shio-Zuchi. When Izanagi washed off the impurities of Hell in the waters of the sea, he made several gods—the god of the sea bottom, god of the middle waters, and god of the surface. In the Engi epoch (901 — 922) the ceremonial mentions a shrine of the Sea god in Harima province, and the shrine of another Sea god in Chikuzen province. Fish and all sea creatures are ruled by the Sea god, and his messenger is the sea-monster which the ancient texts call Wani. We have already noted that the god Hikohohodemi went to the bottom of the sea to look for his brother's fish-hook, and lived in the palace of the Sea god who gave him the two jewels of the tides. At the time of the spread of Ryobu-Shinto, the Sea god had a sanctuary at Sumiyoshi, but became amalgamated with the Hindu god Varuna and thus developed into the very popular god, Suitengu, a great protector of sailors, with t sanctuaries in almost all the big towns. On top of this mingling of personalities was engrafted the child Emperor, Antoku, who with his nurse died at sea during the battle of Dan-No-Ura. Thus grew up the belief that the god Suitengu, being a child himself, protects and comforts sick children. The Fire god. The Fire god caused his mother's death when coming into the world and was killed by his father—on this occasion the god was called Kagu-Zuchi. In incantations he is always evoked under his other name of Ho-Masubi, the causer of fire, and in Ryobu-Shinto he becomes the god of mount Atago near Kyoto. He is supposed to be a protection against fire, so he is visited by many pilgrims who bring back amulets bearing the figure of a wild boar. The Fire god was greatly feared by the Japanese, for during L the season of high winds their wooden houses were easily destroyed w by fires. Twice a year the priests carried out at the Imperial palace a ritual intended to placate fire, and also to drive away all risk of ' burning from the Sovereign's dwelling. During this complicated ceremony some of the priests lighted fires by different methods in the four corners of the palace. Others read an incantation which related the myth of the god's birth, and enumerated the four ways to control him—with the help of the water-goddess, the gourd, river weed, and the clay-goddess, in accordance with the instructions given by Izanami. After that the priests read a list of the offerings which must be given to the Fire god to persuade him to spare His Majesty's palace. The ritual customs of the shines demanded a pure fire which J the priests made either by the friction of pieces of Hinoki wood I (this is the Kiri-Bi fire) or by striking a hard stone with steel, which * gives Uchi-bi fire. The priests of Shinto use it in their houses, and | the Emperor's food is prepared over it. On New Year's Day at [ Kyoto the faithful make their way to the Temple of Gion, and there receive from the priest's hands the pure fire, which they take home carefully to light the fire of their own hearths, and thus receive protection throughout the year. The matron overseers strike pure fire above the heads of geishas and courtesans to give them magical protection when they go out to clients. Gods of the Road. The ancient texts mention several Road gods. Chimata-No-Kami is the god of crossroads and is mentioned in one of the norito. We must also note the god of innumerable roads, Yachimata-hiko, with whom goes a goddess of innumerable roads, Yachimato-hime; the god-of-the-place-not-to-be-visited, Kunado; and also the-god-of-the-place-not-to-be-violated, Funado. These gods are named also Sae-no-Kami, gods-who-ward-off (misfortunes), or the-ancestors-of-roads, Dosojin. They protect mankind against the wicked gods of Hell. It is to be noted that they have no sanctuaries, but twice a year ceremonies were celebrated in their honour at the entrance to a town or at a cross-roads, offerings were made them, and the ritual texts were read. To protect themselves against misfortunes and diseases which might be brought them by foreigners, the ancient Japanese celebrated ceremonies to the honour of the Sae-no-Kami two days before the arrival of an embassy. These protector gods are phallic gods, and their Shintai is a stick. When they are represented in human form, in stone or wood, their sex is always clearly indicated. Some Japanese scholars think the Road gods and the phallic gods were originally distinct, and only later were blended. However that may be, these gods were very popular in ancient Shinto, and as lords of procreation they were considered to be powerful protectors. In the Kogoshui we read that a phallus was set up in the middle of a field to protect the rice from i locusts. In ancient times large stone phalluses were often placed at cross-roads, but the Buddhist priests opposed this belief, and replaced the ancient phallic emblems by wooden images of Mikado-Daimyojin (G. Kato, op. cit. p. 177). Then the Imperial government gave orders to take down the emblems of the cult and to remove them to unfrequented places. But the cult persists in popular belief, and there are still shrines where the god is venerated. The emblems are often to be found in the small domestic altars in courtesans' houses. Near forked trees in the mountains, little chapels containing a phallus are often found. Mr G. Kato has devoted a study of Japanese forms of phallic cult. (A Study of the development of Religious Ideas among the Japanese People as illustrated by Japanese Phallicism. Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol I, suppl. 1924). Rustic gods. We have already said that the ancient Japanese conceived that all aspects and phenomena of Nature were manifestations of different divinities. For this reason the Kojiki mentions among the gods derived from Izanagi and Izanami, the Princess-of-Grass, Kaya-Nu-hime, who is the goddess of fields and meadows, and is named Nu-Zuchi. Other texts mention gods of the tree trunks, Kuku-no-chi, and a god-who-protects-leaves, Hamori. In addition to the generalised divinities, each species of tree has a special god— oaks, for instance, are protected by Kashiwa-no-Kami. Large and beautiful trees are venerated, and often hung with a rope of plaited straw from which hang little pieces of paper called Shime-nawa, telling the passer-by of the tree's divine quality. In a hollow of the tree or in front of it there is made a tiny chapel where the faithful leave offerings. The tree Sakaki (Cleyera japonica) is particularly venerated, because it was the tree chosen by the gods on which to hang the mirror during the ceremony carried out to tempt the Sun goddess from her cave. In all Shinto shrines there are plantations of sakaki, and branches of the tree are laid before the altars. The big Japanese cedar called the tree of fire, Hinoki, is also considered as sacred, and is therefore planted round sanctuaries. Mr G. Kato (op. cit., p. 21) says: 'It seems to me that, from Saka Shibutsu's Daijingu Sankeiki or Journal of Pilgrimages to the Ise Shrines, we may infer that so late as the fourteenth century there existed at Ise a Nature-cult which took the form of tree-worship. A cherry-tree called Sakura no miya was worshipped within the precincts of the great Shrine at Ise.' Gods of Stones and Rocks. Stones and Rocks are also objects of veneration in Shinto. There existed an important god of rock, Oiwa Daimyojin, while in the Izushi Shrine stones are worshipped. JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY — 417 We must not forget the stone which, according to the legend, the Empress Jingo (170—269 A.D.) carried on her belly in order to delay the birth of her child, because she was in command of a military expedition against Korea. This stone is now venerated, and is supposed to help women in childbirth. In Hizen province, a sanctuary is dedicated to a similar stone and bears the name Shrine-of-the-stone-helping-childbirth, Chinkai-Seki-no-Yashiro. Clay or earth, as matter, has a goddess called Hani-Yasu-no-Kami. The goddess of Food. In the ancient texts the goddess of food is given different names—Uke-Mochi-No-Kami, she-who-possesses (Mochi), food (uke); Waka-Uke-Nome, the-young-woman-with-food; and Toyo-Uke-Bime, the princess-of-rich-food, etc. In the Nihon shoki we learn that Amaterasu sent her brother Tsuki-Yomi, the Food goddess. She invited him to a meal, and produced rice and other dishes from her mouth to set out several tables. Tsuki-Yomi was annoyed by such a meal, and killed the goddess Uke-Mochi. Amaterasu was angry at this murder, and separated from her brother. Uke-Mochi-No-Kami is worshipped in the Geku Shrine, which after that of the Sun goddess, is the most important of the Ise sanctuaries. The Rice god. Inari, the Rice god, is closely related to the Food goddess, but his cult is far more extended and he has shrines with many red Torii, perhaps in greater number than any sanctuaries in Japan. In popular belief the god Inari is represented as a bearded old man sitting on a sack of rice, flanked by two foxes, who are his messengers. The people confuse Inari with his messengers, and worship the fox as the god of Rice. He is now considered as the god of Prosperity in all his forms, and is especially worshipped by tradesmen. In old Japan he was known as the patron of the smiths who forged swords. Hearth gods. The hearth is protected by several deities. There are gods of the entrance and a couple of Kitchen gods named Oki-Tsu-Hiko and Oki-Tsu-Hime. There is a special god for the Imperial kitchen. The Emperor Keiko (A.D. 71 — 188) wished to reward the culinary talents of a deceased Imperial Prince, so dedicated a shrine to him, and promoted him to the rank of tutelary divinity of the Imperial kitchen (G. Kato, op. cit. p. 62). The god of the kitchen range, Kamado-no-Kami, is a greatly venerated deity in all houses. in old Japan special festivals were dedicated to the god of Pots, and all artisans who used pots in their occupation took part in them. During the ceremony of good wishes for the Palace, known as Otono-no-hogai, the procession visited the bathroom and the closets, where offerings were made of a few grains of rice and a few drops of rice-wine. The god of Closets was respected and feared because, according to the Japanese, evil gods always settle in unclean places, and from there afterwards send dangerous diseases. Deified heroes. The pantheon of Shinto gods was always increasing. In addition to the mythological gods, historical personages were and are considered as Kami, but this is not a very ancient tendency. In the ninth century there is a mention of prayers addressed to a deceased Emperor to ootain rain or avoid a misfortune. Towards the beginning of the tenth century we find a written order to make offerings to the deceased sovereign as if he were a Kami. Among the deified sovereigns we must put to one side those to whom shrines were erected in order to calm their anger, or the desire for vengeance, which they might have felt from the suffering of their lifetime. Such was the Emperor Junnin (750 — 764) who was banished to Awaji island and then assassinated; such too Sutoku (1124—1141) who died in exile in Sanuki; Go-Toba (1184—1198), Tsuchi-Mikado (1199-1210) and Juntoku (1211-1221) who were exiled to different places after the defeat of their troops by the army of the military Government of Kama Kura; the Emperor Go-Uaigo (1319 — 1338) who also tried to free himself from the control of the military Government of Kama Kura. He was banished to the island of Chiburi, succeeded in escaping and in re-assuming power, but had finally to abdicate after several years of hard struggle. And then there was the child Emperor Antoku, already mentioned, who died in 1185 in the naval battle of Danno-ura. The sovereigns Chuai and Ojm, as well as the Empress Jingo, were deified for their military exploits. The last-named is venerated in the Shrine of Sumiyoshi for her expedition to Korea, which probably occurred about the fourth century of our era. The Emperor Chuai fought the rebel tribes of Kyushu island, and died just before the expedition to Korea. The Emperor Ojin, son of Chuai and Jingo, had a shrine at Usa, built in 712 by the Empress Gemmyo (708 — 714), and he became the god of War under the popular name of Hachiman. In the ninth century the Emperor Seiwa (died 876) built another shrine to him at Iwashimizu. The Ryobu-Shinto doctrines introduced Buddhist elements into his cult, and added on to his name a Buddhist epithet, Hachiman Daibosatsu. After the Imperial restoration of 1868 he once more became a purely Shinto deity. His shrines are still numerous, and always thronged with the pigeons who are his messengers. The Imperial government deified the legendary founder of the dynasty, the Emperor Jimmu, as well as the great reforming Emperor Kammu (719—781) and put up shrines to them. The Emperor Meiji, who died in 1912, and his wife, have been deified and have a sanctuary. Statesmen also have become gods, and shrines have been built to them. The Minister Fujiwara Kamatari (614 — 669) has a shrine and receives offerings. Sugawara Michizane (845—903) is a Minister who died in exile. After his death his spirit brought misfortune to those who had calumniated him to the Emperor, and a small shrine was erected to him in 907, and a larger one in 947. He is considered as the protector of scholars, and the god of Calligraphy. He is called Tenjin, and his shrines are numerous. The great military dictator Oda Nobunaga (1534—1582) is venerated in a Shinto shrine, and so is his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1530— 1598), leyasu (1524— 1616), founder of the house of Tokugawa, which governed Japan for nearly three centuries, has sanctuaries where he is worshipped under the name of Tosho-Dai-gongen. Other examples might be quoted. There were even persons to whom shrines were erected in their lifetime, and who were venerated as Kami before their death. Mr G. Kato has paid special attention to this question, and has devoted to it a volume of over four hundred pages, Hompo Seishi no Kenkyu, with an appendix in English: Shinto worship of living human gods in the religious history of Japan, 1932, Tokyo, as well as several articles in the Transactions of the Meiji Japan Society. He mentions the case of Honda Tadakazu (vol. XL, 1933), and that of Matsudaira Sadanobu (1758—1829) chief Minister of the Tokugawa and man of letters (vol. XXXIII, 1930). We will limit ourselves to these two examples. BUDDHISM IN JAPAN INTRODUCTION Japanese Buddhist sects. It is probable that about the fourth century of our era certain elements of Buddhism (following the doctrines of the Mahayana, the Great Vehicle) entered Japan from China by way of Korea. However, it has been agreed to accept the year 522 as the official date of the introduction of Buddhism into Japan, since in that year the Korean kingdom of Paikche sent the Emperor of Japan a gilded bronze statue of Buddha and some volumes of Buddhist Sutras. The Emperor was not converted, but he allowed the great Soga family to adopt the new religion. After violent conflicts between the Buddhists and the old nationalist families, the new religion was proclaimed the religion of the state by the Prince Regent Shotoku in 592. During the whole of the seventh and eighth centuries, in the course of the period called 'Nara' from the name of the temporary capital, Buddhism developed rapidly in Japan. There were then six main sects, the chief of which are the Sanron sect, the doctrine of the three books, founded by a Korean monk in 625; the Hosso sect, of Indian origin, introduced to Japan in 653; the Kegon sect introduced in 736 and based on the Avatamsaka sutra. The number of Buddhist divinities then introduced into Japan was still limited. Towards the end of the eighth century the Buddhist clergy became a formidable power. To escape it the Emperor Kammu (783— 805) decided to transfer the capital from Nara to Heian-kyo or Kyoto (794). It was the beginning of a new period, during which important religious reforms were carried out. Towards the year 804 the monks Dengyo Daishi and then Kobo Daishi came back from China, and taught the Tendai and Shingon doctrines. These were in opposition to the ancient Nara sects, not only from their mystical and secret aspect and from the pomp of their ceremonies, but also from their new doctrine of salvation made accessible to all human beings. Moreover, these new sects introduced a very large number of Buddhist divinities into Japan. Among these divinities the Dhyani Buddha, Vairocana, was the centre of a spiritual world which was represented by the aid of a drawing or Mandala. The world of ideas (Kongokai) must be distinguished from the world of forms (Taizokai). In each of these Mandalas the centre of the composition is occupied by Vairocana. To the monk Dobo Daishi is also attributed the creation of Ryobu-Shinto or Shinto with two faces, whose doctrines unite the gods of Shinto with Buddhist divinities by identifying the one with the other. Thus Amaterasu, the Sun goddess, became a temporal manifestation of Vairocana. In the twelfth century new Buddhist sects were introduced into Japan, notably the Jodo-Shu (Pure Land sect) which profoundly altered the preceding doctrines. Salvation for human beings is a Paradise which to some extent takes the place of the notion of Nirvana. It is governed by Amida Buddha. Corresponding to the existence of a Paradise there was a Hell, Jigoku, situated underground. In the thirteenth century the monk Shinran Shonin reformed the sect, which then became 'the True Pure Land sect', Jodo-Shinshu. For the believers in this doctrine there was only one Buddha, Amida. His image only is allowed in Shinshu Temples. At the same period the monk Nichiren founded a sect based on the Sutra of the Lotus of Good Law, Saddharma pundarika sutra. Limited by the space at our disposal and also by the impossibility of reviewing all the innumerable figures of the Buddhist pantheon, we shall limit ourselves to the most important, especially stressing the iconographic features which distinguish one from another. BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS Amida. He is the most famous of the Dhyani Buddhas. He is especially favoured by the Shinshu and Jodo-Shu sects. He is the great protector of mankind, he comforts all who call upon his name, his Paradise in the West is open to all human beings. Standing with uncovered head in Indian dress he calls heaven and earth to witness that he will not enter Nirvana until he has saved all mankind. Many images represent him enthroned in the centre of the Sukhavati Paradise, or appearing behind the mountains, Yamagoshi no Amida, or coloured red and with his legs crossed, Kuharishiki no Amida. The esoteric sects recognise three Amidas—Muryoju (Amitayus), Muryoko (Amitabha) and Kanroo (Amrita). Ashuku Nyorai. The cult of this Buddha does not exist in Japan. Yet his form will be found in Mandalas, either alone or joined with a group of divinities. He sits with crossed legs on a lotus. He has no head-dress. His outstretched right hand has the fingers pointing to earth, and his left first is clenched. Dainichi Nyorai. Dainichi Nyorai, Maha-Vairocana tathagata, is the essential divinity of the Tendai, Shingon, and Kegon esoteric sects, and is the central figure of the Taizokai and Kongokai Mandalas. Fugen Bosatsu. Fugen Bosatsu, Samantabhadra, is one of the most important Bodhisattvas. He represents wisdom, intelligence, understanding. He sits at the end of the Path of the extinction of errors. Thanks to his deep intuition and to his infinite kindness he understands the motives of all human actions. The uniformity of his compassion corresponds to the constancy of his contemplation. He is able to prolong human life. He is often depicted seated on a lotus supported by one or more white elephants. He may have two or twenty arms. Hosho Nyorai. Hosho Nyorai, Ratnasambhava. He is the thrid Tathagata of the Kongokai Mandala. He looks after all treasures. Kannon Bosatsu (Avalokitesvara, Kuan-yin). The cult of this Bodhisattva is one of the most venerated in Japan. It was practised from the first introduction of Buddhism, and the Horyuji monastery still preserves a beautiful bronze statue of Kannon dating from 651. His mercy is infinite, he comes to the help of all men. All Buddhist sects without exception worship him, and have put up innumerable sanctuaries to him. On the top of his head there is always placed a little image of Amida, recalling that Kannon Bosatsu is one of the two companions (disciple or manifestation, according to whether the sect is exoteric or esoteric) of this Buddha. There are seven forms of Kannon which are said to be the most widespread in Japan: Senju Kannon (Kannon with the thousand arms or Sahasrabhuja sahasranetra) is figured in the centre of a vast halo formed out of a thousand hands, and in the palm of each is a human eye which symbolises his ever-vigilant compassion. Forty arms are attached to his body, and each holds an attribute or makes a mudra. Sometimes the centre head of this divinity is surmounted by twenty seven heads. Nyo-i-rin Kannon (Cintamaricakra) usually has six arms, and each of the hands protects one of the six conditions. One holds a cintamani, the symbol of the satisfaction of vows; one a rosary, one a lotus or a wheel, the two others support his chin and rest on the lotus where the divinity is seated. Ju-ichimen Kannon (Ekadasamukha) has eleven heads which the different sects group according to different combinations. 'Following the instructions of the Sutras, three faces—those in the centre and those in front—should have the expression of a Bodhisattva; the three faces to the left, an angry expression; and the three faces to the right should have the expression of a Bodhisattva but the canine teeth should project from the mouth. The face situated behind the head of the Bodhisattva laughs. The face at the top is either that of a Buddha or of a Nyorai and each of these heads carries the image of Amida on its diadem.' Sho Kannon (Avalokitesvara). The All-Merciful comes to the aid of those who implore him. The Taizokai Mandala, which groups deities in the order of their power and the intentions they incarnate, places him to the right of Dainichi. Bato Kannon (Hayagriva, the horse-headed Kannon). He is a manifestation of Amida. He has no crown. A horse's head placed on his hair recalls the charger of Cakravartiraja, which galloped tirelessly to the four points of the compass. He symbolises the Bod-hisattva's universal activity in assisting the unfortunate and fighting demons. He protects the souls which destiny brings to the state of animals. His terrible face has a third eye and fangs. He sits on a lotus, and his hands form a mudra at the height of his breast. Jundei Kannon (Sunde) uses his infinite virtues for the salvation of mankind. He has three eyes and eighteen arms. He is less often represented than the other forms of Kannon. Fuku-kensaku Kannon (Amoghapasa) is a divinity of the Taizokai, World of Forms. Miroku Bosatsu (Maitreya). The future Buddha. He dwells in the Tushita heaven and will come down on earth five thousand six hundred and seventy million years after the entry of Buddha into Nirvana. He revealed to Asanga the secret doctrines of the Maha-yana, which explains his popularity among the esoteric sects. Ancient sculpture represents him sitting down, with his left foot on the ground, his right foot on his left knee, his right elbow on his right knee, and his left hand on his right ankle. His head is slightly bent, his right hand supports his chin, and there is a little Stupa on his crown. But sometimes he is to be met with having his legs crossed or standing on a lotus. Among the ten names of Buddha is the name Nyorai, (Tathagata). This term corresponds with one of the forms under which Buddha manifests himself for the salvation of mankind. Myoo. A great Myoo corresponds to each of the five great Buddhas. Dainichi (Mahavairocana), Ashuku (Akshobhya), Hosho (Rat- ] nasambhava), Mida (Amithabha) and Fuku (Amonghavajra). ' These are terrible manifestations of the Buddhas, and are those ] who carry out their wishes. [onju Bosatsu, the Japanese form of the Buddhist god of wisdom and n), Jikoku Ten, who watches over the region of the east. Dai-itoku-Myoo (Yamantaka) is the terrible manifestation of Amida, and lives in the region of the West. More powerful than the dragon, he does battle with evils and poisons. He is surrounded with flames and sits on a white ox or a rock. He has six heads with terrible faces, and also six arms and six legs. He conquered Emma-hoo, the king of Hell, whence his second name, Goemmason. Fudo-Myoo (Arya acalanatha). The most important of the five great Myoo, one of the manifestations of Dainichi nyorai (Vairo-cana). He is surrounded by flames, the symbols of his virtues. His ferocious face is half hidden by his long hair. With his sword, which is the symbol of wisdom and mercy, he battles with the three poisons — avarice, anger and folly. He binds with his rope those who oppose the Buddha. Gozanze-Myoo. He is the terrible manifestation of Ashuku, and lives in the region of the East. Each of his four faces bears a ferocious expression and has a third eye in the forehead. His eight hands hold different attributes. His left foot treads on Jizaiten (Mahesvara). His right foot presses the hand of Umahi (Uma), Jizaiten's wife. Gundari-Myoo is the terrible manifestation of Hosho. He is represented standing on a lotus. His terrible face has three eyes, and fangs protrude from his mouth. A human skull is placed on his hair, and his red body has eight arms. Snakes are coiled round his wrists and ankles. This divinity is also called Nampo Gundari Yasha, because he lives to the south of mount Sumeru, and also Kanro (Amrita), because he gives heavenly nectar to poor human beings. Kongo-yasha-Myoo (Vajrayaksha) is the terrible manifestation of Fuku. He protects the region of the North. He is surrounded by flames, poses on two lotus flowers, and lifts his left leg. He may have three heads and six arms, or one head and four arms. The front face has five eyes. Kujaku-Myoo does not belong to the series of five Great Myoo. His looks are not terrible, and he is represented with the features of a Bodhisattva. He is always seated on a peacock. The esoteric sects consider him a manifestation of Sakyamuni. He gives pro-protection against calamities, and is particularly resorted to for •rain during periods of droughts. Aizen-Myoo is a divinity who, under his terrible appearance, is full of compassion for mankind. His ferocious face with three eyes is topped by a lion's head with a bristling mane surmounted by a Vajra (thunder-bolt) which calms evil passions and guilty desires. He has six arms holding different attributes. In the secret Shingon sect Aizen-Myoo is in the centre of a Mandala. Jizo Bosatsu (Kshitigarbha). The cult of this Bodhisattva, very little spread in India, had much popularity in central Asia, China, and especially Japan from the twelfth century. He is the great protector of all suffering humanity. Many sanctuaries are dedicated to him. His image has inspired sculptors and painters with masterpieces, and yet may be seen roughly carved alongside the roads of Japan. His considerable power is exercised in very different cases, whence the large number of different aspects in which he appears, fhere are six Jizo protectors of the six Paths or good and bad conditions which souls must undergo after judgment: that of Hell, that of the starving Demons, that of the world of animals, that of the demon Asuras, that of Men, that of the Devas. There are many tales displaying his infinite kindness —he saves the life of the warrior foshihira, he averts fires, facilitates childbirth etc. One of the main devotions offered to him is as the pitying protector of children. In the seventeenth century his power was increased and with it his popularity- he is able to redeem sinful souls from Hell and to bring them to Paradise. His most usual appearance is that of a Buddhist monk, seated or standing, holding a crozier (Khakkhara) in his right hand, and a precious pearl in the left. There is often a halo round his head. f he Jizo of the victorious army (Shogun Jizo) was associated with the divinity of mount Atago when Ryobu-Shinto was formed. In this particular form he has the appearance of a Chinese soldier on horseback, holding the crozier in one hand and the pearl in the other. JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY — 421 Kozuko Bosatsu. He lives in the koju world. The many images of him preserved in the Temples show him seated with crossed legs on a lotus supported by a lion. Monju Bosatsu (Manjusri) was extremely popular in the ninth century and personifies intelligence, compassion, and contemplation. He is often associated with Fugen Bosatsu in the Shaka Nyorai trinity. This Bodhisattva is always accompanied by a lion. He is generally seated, holds in his hands the sword of intelligence which cuts thedarkness of ignorance, and a book. Yakushi Nyorai. Yakushi Nyorai (Bhaishajyaguru) is a divinity very popular in Japan from the eighth century, sometimes identified with Ashuku Nyorai or with Dainichi Nyorai. He is the divine healer who stops epidemics, whose knowledge can overcome every disease. He is usually represented under the aspect of a Buddha holding in his hand a little flask containing medicines. Sometimes he is accompanied by two other deities, the Bodhisattvas, Gakko, image of the Moon, and Nikko, image of the Sun. HELL AND DEMONS Emma-hoo (Yama-raja). Hell, Jigoku, is underground. It is made up of eight regions of fire and eight of ice. There are also subsidiary hells. The ruler of this infernal world is Emma-hoo (Yama-raja) who is also the supreme judge of Hell. Under his orders are eighteen generals and eighty thousand men. He is represented in the dress of a Chinese judge wearing a cap inscribed with the name Emma. The expression of his face is ferocious. Emma-hoo only judges men, and leaves the task of deciding the fate of women to his sister. The sinner is taken before this formidable judge, who sits between the decapitated heads of Miru-me and Kagu-hana, from whom nothing can be hidden. All his past sins are reflected into the sinner's eyes by a huge mirror. His sins are weighed, and then Emma-hoo gives judgment. The sinner must stay in such-and-such a region of Hell according to the extent of his sins, unless his soul is saved by the prayers of the living. In this case a Bodhisattva rescues him from torture, and the sinner is reborn either on earth or in a Paradise. Oni (devil-demons). The idea of ill-omened forces was introduced into Japan relatively late. Indian ideas and the Chinese doctrines of Yang and Yin were altered there and ended up in the creation of demons, Oni, and the birth of a new iconography. The Oni of Hell are distinguished from the Oni on earth. The former have red or green bodies, with the heads of oxen or horses. Their occupation consists in hunting for the sinner and taking him in a chariot of fire to Emma-hoo, god of Hell. The gaki demons are eternally tormented by thirst or hunger, and their bellies are enormous. The latter are maleficent demons who can assume the shape of a living being or of an inanimate object. There are invisible demons, but their presence may be detected because they sing, whistle, or talk. In the ninth century it was believed that very virtuous people only might sometimes witness their processions, invisible to all other mortals. They have the power to seize on a dead man's soul, and to appear to his relatives in his form. We must also mention the Oni who are responsible for diseases and epidemics (they are dressed in red) and the Oni who are women changed into demons under the stress of jealousy or violent grief. Although they are maleficent spirits, the Oni in general are not very dangerous, and they may even be converted to Buddhism. SUBSIDIARY DEITIES Nio. The name of Nio is given to the two protectors of Buddhism who correspond to Vajrapani. Eukaotsu and Soko are placed on either side of the entry to Shrines. Ida-ten, the Chinese Wei-t'o. Although of subsidiary importance this deity became very popular in China and still more in Japan from the seventh century onward. He guards the law, and watches over the discipline of monasteries and the good conduct of the monks. Ida-ten (General Wei) appeared in a dream to the Chinese monk Tao Hsuan (596 — 667). 'He is the first of the thirty-four generals of the four devaraja, placed directly under the orders of Him of the A'false face' mask of painted wood with human hair. These masks were worn by the Iroquois tribes of the east during rituals which celebrated the spirits of nature and drove away harmful ones. The occasions were primarily religious but there was a great deal of horseplay and some of the masks had a i distinctly humorous aspect. British Museum. South, Virudhaka, the protector of Buddhism and especially of mohks and monasteries in the three regions of the South, the East, and the West gifted with absolute purity and free from all passion.' In Japan the familiar expression 'running like Ida-ten', which means to run very fast, is derived from the following legend. When Buddha was dead but before they had closed the gold coffin, a demon named Sokushikki stole one of the sacred teeth and made off with it. The disciples, thunderstruck with surprise, were unable to stop him, and with one leap he went forty thousand yojana. Ida-ten alone pursued him, and regained the precious relic. In statues he is represented as a young man in the dress of a Chinese general, with his two hands resting on a weapon or holding it across his arms. Buddha's disciples. Among the sixteen Rakan (Arhat) or disciples of Buddha we shall mention only Binzuru, the first among them. He aids human beings, and soothes the sick. However, entrance to Nirvana was refused him by Buddha because in his youth he broke the vow of chastity. He dwelt on mount Marishi. He is represented usually as an extremely old man with pure white hair and thick eyebrows. Atago-Gongen. Atago-Gongen was a deity of Ryobu-Shinto who emigrated from the sanctuary of mount Atago at the beginning of the Meiji epoch, when the government expelled the Buddhist divinities from the Shinto sanctuaries. There he was confused with a deity of Thunder and Fire. In the eighth century the bronze Keishun built on top of mount Atago a Buddhist shrine consecrated to the Jizo of the victorious army. The iconography of Atago-Gongen was influenced by this proximity. The deity took on the appearance of a Chinese cavalry soldier carrying the emblems of Jizo, the precious pearl and the crozier. Today the mount Atago sanctuary is a Shinto shrine where a Fire god is worshipped. Nijuhachi Bushu is the general name for the twenty-eight deities symbolising the constellations. They are sometimes considered as servants of Kannon. Marishi-ten. Marici-deva is an all-powerful deva. He precedes the Sun. He is invisible, but the Japanese represent him in the costume of a Chinese lady, to indicate his Continental origin. He protects soldiers, and averts the danger of fires. Shitenno. The Shitenno are four kings, heavenly guards, Lokapala. They are five hundred years old and live in the slopes of mount Sumeru, on the top of which dwells Taishaku-ten, whose vassals they are. They wear a ferocious expression, are dressed as Chinese soldiers, and trample on demons. They may be distinguished by their attributes. Jikoku (Dhritarashtra) protects the region of the East, he holds a sword and a little ossuary. Zocho (Virudhaka) protects the region of the South, he fights evil and does good, and holds a sword and shield. Komoku (Virupaksha) protects the region of the West, he holds a paint-brush or a spear in his hand, while the other hand is on his hip or holds the sheath of his sword. Tamon (Vaisramana) or Bishamon holds a sceptre and a little ossuary shaped like a pagoda. He protects the region of the North. Kishimojin (Hariti) is a female divinity dwelling in China. At first she was a demon-woman who devoured children, but, after her conversion by Buddha, became their protector and also of women in childbirth. Mothers implore her to heal their sick children. The Shingon sect who brought her into Japan have kept her original name, Kariteimo. Many shrines were consecrated to her by the Nichiren sect. She is represented either standing with a baby to her breast and holding the flower of happiness, or sitting down in the Western fashion, surrounded with children. Kompira (Kuvera) is a popular deity in Japan, the protector of sailors and bringer of prosperity. A large shrine is consecrated to him in the village of Kotohira on Shikoku island. The numerous pilgrims there receive a little slab of wood as an amulet, with the Chinese character for 'gold' engraved in a circle. The sailors of the Inland Sea had a special devotion to him in the Tokugawa period. To calm a storm the sailor cut his hair and threw it into the sea while uttering the name of the deity. He appears in the shape of a fat man sitting down cross-legged. In one hand he holds a purse. Shichi Fukujin. The seven gods of happiness have different origins. Ebisu and Daikoku are probably Shinto Kami. These gods wear Japanese clothes, and the lobes of their ears are swollen. Ebisu, the patron of work, holds a line in his hands and a big fish on a string. Daikoku, god of prosperity, holds the hammer of wealth and a big sack on his back, while he stands on two sacks of rice. Benzaiten and Bishamonten are of Hindu origin. The first is the deity of love. She rides a dragon and plays the biwa, and her messenger is the snake. The second is the god of happiness and war. He is represented as a soldier holding a little pagoda and a lance. The three other gods are of Chinese origin. Fukurokuju is the god of wisdom and long life, with a very high skull. He is accompanied by a stork. Jurojin, god of happiness and long life, leans on a long staff and is accompanied by a stag. Hotei Osho is a Buddhist priest • with a fat stomach and a bald head, while the lobes of his ears are swollen. He holds a hand-screen and a large sack. He has been popularised in Europe under the name of Pusa.